
X' 



^■^ 



' .0 < .A 

< 




THE 

ART OF RHETORIC: 

OK, THE 

ELEMENTS OF ORATORY, 

ADAPTED TO THE PRACTICE 
OF THE STUDENTS OF 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 

METHODICALLY ARRANGED FROM THE 

ANCIENT AND MODERN RHETORICAL WRITERS, VIZ : 

Aristotle, Petrus Ramus, FaRnaby, 

Cicero, Cyp. Soarius, Lowe, 

Dionysius of Hal., Dugard, Rollin, 

ISOCRATES, BlACKWALL, SMITH, 

Plato, Blair, Walker, 

Quintilian, Burton, Archbishop of Cambray, 

Vossius, Butler, Messrs. de Port-Royal, 

&c. &c. 

BY JOHN HOLMES, 

LATE MASTER OF THE PUBLIC GRAMMAR SCHOOL IN HOLT, NORFOLK, (ENGLAND.) 

TO WHICH IS ADDED 

QTJINTILIAN'S COURSE 

OF AN 

ANCIENT ROMAN EDUCATION; 

FROM THE PUPIL'S FIRST ELEMENTS, 

TO HIS ENTRANCE INTO THE SCHOOL OF ORATORY. 

A NEW AND CAREFULLY CORRECTED EDITION, 

IN TWO BOOKS. 
ENTIRELY REMODELED : 

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, ACADEMIES, AND COLLEGES. 



BY JOHN A. GETTY, A. M. 

Song charms the sense, but eloquence the soul. — Milton 

— Res antiquse Laudis et Artis 
Ingredior, sanctos ausus recludere Fontes. — Virgil. 



PHILADELPHIA: 
CAREY AND HART. 

1849. 



/ 



Tiff"* 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1848, by 

JOHN A. GETTY, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District of Maryland. 



TO THE 

GOVERNORS AND VISITORS 

OF 

SIR JOHN GRESHAM'S FREE GRAMMAR SCHOOL, 

AT HOLT, IN NORFOLK : 



SLINGSBY BETHELL, Esa., 
Alderman, and Member of Parliament for London ; 

SIR ROBERT CATER, Knt., 
Alderman and Sheriff of London ; 
The Hon. Sir Jacob Astlet, Bart., the Hon. Col. Augustine Earle, 
the Rev. Mr. John Springold, Rector of Wiveton, the Rev. Mr. Jo- 
seph Lane, Rector of Saxlingham, the Rev. Mr. John Girdlestone, 
Rector of Cley juxta Mare, Edmond Newdigate, M. D., William 
Brereton, Benjamin Seel, Richard Percy, Robert Stockdale, 
Thomas Johnson, Edward Price, James Steward, James Stent, 
Alexander Bower, Edward Stafford, Charles Smyth, George 
Thawyer, John Gregory, James Sawcer, Thomas Gilmore, 
George Comer, Shale Shad well, Claude Bosanqutet, Jonathan 
Bowles, Elias Brownsword, Michael Fenwick, Joseph Clarke, 
William Willy, Cornelius Denne, John Jones, Samuel Towers, 
John Cartwright, and Caleb White, Esquires, 

THIS TREATISE OF RHETORIC, 

OR, 

THE ELEMENTS OF ORATORY, 

FOR THE INSTRUCTION OF YOUTH IN THE ART OF SPEAKING WELL AND WRITING 

ELEGANTLY, 

IS HUMBLY INSCRIBED BY 

YOUR FAITHFUL, OBLIGED, AND 

MOST OBEDIENT SERVANT, 



JOHN HOLMES. 



AMPLISSIMIS ERUDITISSIMISQUE 

VIRIS, 

REVERENDO ADMODUM IN CHRISTO PATRI AC DOMINO 

D. THOMiE HAYTER, 

EPISCOPO NORVICENSI, 

NEC NON 

PR^CLARO HUMANISSIMOQUE 

D. JOSEPHO ATWELL, D.D. 

EJUSDEM DICECESEOS CANCELLARIO, 

S. P. D. 

JOHANNES HOLMES. 



Quoniam natura tenacissimi sumus oranes eorum, quae rudibus annis 
percipimus; et quia, ad parandam bonam juventuti mentem, plurimum 
habet momenti, gustum optimarum rerum protinus insevisse teneris 
animis; hoc opus, Dignissimi ORNATissiMiatrE Viri, in scholarum 
usum jamdudum institui : nempe Tractatcm Oratorium ex diverso- 
rum rhetorurn, illorumque neque unius iEtatis nee regionis, officinis 
depromptum. 

In quo formando expoliendoque non nihil operas oleique consumpsi; 
et (quod olim vestris antecessoribus, tv\oynfxhoiq tS ©sou tk Ual^oi;, Matt, 
xxv. 34, humiliter obtuli) nunc de novo vobis Venerandi Domini, sum- 
ma cum reverentia. humillime do, Dico, Dedico. 

Liber enim, si me non fallit augurium, qui artificium dicendi a veteri- 
bus traditum, legitima, jucunda, facillima, ac quasi compendiaria Me- 
thoro breviter explicabit, atque inde fortasse ad eloqueniice studium 
ornate loquendi cupidos inflammabit, ad vos, domini, qui tot ecclesiis et 
ludis literariis praesidetis, ingratus venire nequaquam potent. 

Ne verd cuilibet importuno et rerum malo a?stimatori auctor, ut qui 

1* 



6 DEDICATIO. 

libellum scholasticum talibus dedicat, temerarius videatur; sciatis, ob- 
secro, Amplissimi Domini, quod non modd liber hoc ipse postulabat, sed 
personce mece nihil convenientius esse ducebam: imo officio meo desuisse 
censeri possem, si alibi illius mihi qusesivissem patronos. Quid enim 
decentius, aut quid aequius, quam ut vobis, qui juventutis Holtensi in 
Gtmnasio liberalibus studiis operam dantis institutionem mihi, per 
licentiam vestram, committitis, non solum negotii, verum etiam otii mei, 
quantumvis licet exigui, aliquam redderem rationem? Porro autem 
illud nunc eo libentius facio, quod hoc mese erga vos observantice. testi- 
monium baud illaudabile aut aneo^iovvaov, ut aiunt, fore arbitror; nihil 
metuens ne, dum earn in rem hac occasione, non arrepta, sed ultro 
oblata, utor, in arrogantiae ut temeritatis suspicionem apud vos incidam : 
quasi levia, nee titulis neque gravitati vestrae convenientia, sint, quae in 
hoc opere continentur. 

Quatenus enim ad subjectum nostrum, Prjesue Ornatissime, si nihil 
i Deo oralione melius accepimus, quid tarn dignum cultu ac labore du- 
camus, aut in quo malimus praestare hominibus, quam quo ipsi homines 
caeteris animalibus praestant? — Quod si orationis tanta praestantia est, 
Dignissime Cancelxarie, non potest non maxima esse dignitas Rhe- 
TOiticzE, qua. ornandce orationis doctrina continetur. 

Ad juventutis studiosae, quae in spem patrise adolescit, orationem for- 
mandam jamdudnm utriusque Ungues doctorum Grammaticas erudito 
orbi exposui; qui, supremo numine favente, benigniter eas acceperunt, 
magnopere comprobarunt, et undique coemendo remuneraverunt: qua- 
mobrem plane ita conftdo, ut volente itidem Deo cujus nutu omnia 
reguntur, aliquo etiam nunc loco finant apud eos esse lucubrationes 
elaboratas has nostras, quae ad ornate Dicendi Artem pertinent, et quas 
sub vestris potissimum amplis et auspicatissimis nominibus in eorum 
manus per venire volui. Nee minus quoque spero quod hilari illas 
vultu Prjestantissmi M^cekates, etiam vos ipsi admittetis. Quod 
profecto facietis, nisi me fallunt omnia. 

Deum ter optimum maximum suppliciter veneror, ut omnia vestra, 
Dignissimi Viri, consilia fortunet, et hie, aucto indies nominum vestro- 
rum splendore, vos, diu patrioe ccclesice, Norfolciensi comitatui, scholceque 
nostra?, salvos et superstites esse velit. 

Dabam Holth nunc denud Calendis ipsis Januarii, Anno Salutis 
Humanae, 1775. 



PREFACE. 



The unanimous voice of every civilized nation has 
awarded unfading laurels to the ancient orators of 
Greece and Rome. The thunder of Demosthenes 
shook the throne of the Macedonian Philip to its 
foundation, and the weight of Cicero 's unrivalled elo- 
quence balanced, for some time, the tottering Republic 
of Rome. In the composition of these Elements, the 
chief design of the author has been to facilitate the 
acquisition of those high and sublime ideas of oratory 
which are interspersed throughout the ancient classics. 
For this purpose he has consulted the writings of 
Aristotle, Longinus, Cicero, Quintilian, and other 
distinguished " heroes of antiquity." He has also 
adopted, in many instances, the sentiments of modern 
rhetorical writers: and, in Elocution, many of the 
most appropriate examples have been selected from 
the Sacred Scriptures. In order, however, to a suc- 
cessful comprehension of the subject, the author has 
prepared, for this edition, a Translation of the first book 
of Quintilian's Institutes of the Orator. This invalu- 
able production of antiquity, comprises a full course of 
an ancient Roman education, preparatory to the study 
of Oratory. 



INDEX 



ELEMENTS OP ORATORY. 





A 






PAGE 










PAGE 


Accent 


- 


. 


- 


191 


Charientismus 




- 


- 


113 


Action 


- 


- 


- 


189 


Climax - 


- 


- 


- 


128 


^Enigma 


- 


- 


- 


161 


Composition 


- 


- 


- 


101 


^Etiology 


- 


- 


- 


151 


Confirmation 


- 


- 


- 


73 


Affections, arguments found- 






D 








ed on the 


• 


. 


- 


55 


Deliberative Orations 


- 


45 


Allegory 


. 


- 


. 


117 


Demonstrative Orations - 


40 


Anaccenosis 


. 


- 


- 


132 


Diaeresis - 


- 


. 


- 


155 


Anadiplosis 


- 


- 


- 


124 


Dialyton - 


- 


- 


- 


140 


Anaphora 


- 


- 


. 


121 


Diastole - 


. 


• 


. 


155 


Anastrophe 


- 


- 


- 


139 


Diasyrmus 


- 


- 


- 


113 


Antanaclasis 


- 


. 


- 


126 


Dick the Apprentice's 


Soli- 




Antimeria 


- 


- 


- 


151 


loquy - 


- 


- 


- 


215 


Antimetabole 


- 


- 


. 


151 


Dignity - 


- 


- 


. 


105 


Antiphrasis 


- 


- 


- 


120 


Disposition 


- 


- 


- 


58 


Antiptosis 


- 


- 


- 


152 


Douglas' Account 


of 


him- 




Antithesis 


- 


. 


133- 


-154 


self - 


- 


- 


- 


202 


Antonomasia 


. 


- 


. 


119 




E 








Aphseresis 


- 


. 


- 


153 


Ecphonesis 


- 


- 


- 


135 


Apocope 


- 


- 


- 


154 


Ecthlipsis 


- 


- 


- 


154 


Apophasis or 


Paraleipsis 




137 


Elegance 


- 


- 


- 


103 


Aporia 


- 


• 


- 


134 


Ellipsis - 


- 


- 


- 


149 


Aposiopesis 


- 


- 


- 


137 


Elocution 


- 


- 


- 


101 


Apostrophe 


- 


- 


- 


145 


Emphasis 


- 


- 


- 


191 


Arguments 


- 


- 


T 


38 


Enallage - 


- 




- 


144 


Asteismus 


- 


- 


- 


113 


Enantiosis 


. 


. 


- 


136 


Asyndeton 


- 


- 


- 


140 


Epanalepsis 


- 


- 


- 


123 




B 








Epanados 


- 


- 


- 


124 


Brutus' Oration 


- 


- 


200 


Epanorthosis 


- 


- 


- 


138 


Brutus and Cassius 


- 


- 


210 


Epenthesis 


- 


- 


- 


154 




C 








Epimone 


- 


- 


- 


152 


Catachresis 


. 


- 


- 


114 


Epiphonema 


- 




- 


143 


Catiline's Orat 


ion ir 


English 


90 


Epistrophe 


- 


- 


- 


122 


Cato's Senate 


- 


- 


- 


204 


Epitrope - 


- 


- 


- 


131 


Soliloquy 


- 


- 


197 


Epizeuxis 


- 


- 


- 


125 



10 



INDEX. 



Erotesis - 
Exordium 

Figure 



PAGE 

129 

58 

121 



Gesture, Natural and Imita- 
tive - - - 191, 192 
H 

Hamlet's Soliloquy - - 199 

Hellenismus - - - 151 

Hendiadis - - - 149 

Homoioteleuton - - 127 

Hypallage - - - 150 

Hyperbaton - - - 145 

Hyperbole ■- - - 114 

Hypotyposis - - - 142 

Hysteron - - - 150 

I 

Invention - - - 35 

Irony - - - - HI 

J 

Judicial Orations - - 52 

L 

Litotes - - - - 119 

M 

Metalepsis - - - 116 

Metaphor - - - 107 

Metathesis - - - 154 

Metonymy ... 108 
Morals, arguments founded 

on - 54, 55 

N 

Narration - - - 63 

O 

Onomatopoeia - - - 120 

Oration, parts of an - 58 

Oxymoron - - - 134 

P 

Paradiastole - - - 152 

Paragoge - - . 154 

Paraleipsis - - - 137 

Paregmenon ... 127 

Paraemia - - - 118 

Paronomasia - - - 127 



PAGE 

Parting of Brutus and Cassius 215 
Partition or Division - 69, 70 

Paul's, St., Defence before 

Agrippa 
Passions - 
Pause 
Periphrasis 
Peroration 
Phocias's Soliloquy 
Pleonasmus 



Ploce 

Polyptoton 
Polysyndeton - 
Prolepsis 
Pronunciation - 
Proposition 
Prosopopoeia - 
Prosthesis 

] 
Refutation 
Repetitions 

Rhetoric 

j 

Sarcasmus 

Satan's Speech to his rebel 

host 
to Death 



State of a Cause 
Sym ploce 
Synseresis 
Synalaepha 
Synathraesmus 
Syncope - 
Synecdoche 
Synonymy 
Systole - 



Theme, parts of a, with Ex- 
amples 
Tmesis - 
Tone 
Tropes - 



Voice 



56 
191 
141 

84 
202 
148 
125 
126 
140 
130 
189 

68 
147 
153 

75 
121 

13 

113 

84 
196 

52 
123 
155 
154 
149 
153 
109 
128 
155 



93 
151 
191 
105 

190 



%* To find any Trope or Figure in the Latin part of Elocution: 
find, by the Index, the Trope or Figure in the English part, and the 
number of the one in the English will be found to correspond to the 
same in Latin. 



BOOK I 



THE 

ART OF RHETORIC : 

OR, THE 

ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 



What is Rhetoric ? 

" Rhetoric is the art of speaking in such a manner 
as to attain the end for which we speak."* 

Into how many questions may it be resolved ? 

Two: the first, regarding the quality, the second, 
the import of the words by which it is defined. 



INTRODUCTION. 

DEFINITIONS OF RHETORIC, FROM QUINTILIAN'S 
INSTITUTES OF THE ORATOR. 

I. 

Let us first examine what rhetoric is, of which there 
are different definitions. Considered in itself, it may 
be resolved into two questions; the first, regarding the 

* Blair, Lecture XXV. — Lord Bacon defines rhetoric, or oratory, to be 
the art of applying and addressing the dictates of reason to the fancy, 
and of so recommending them as to affect the will and desires. 

Vossius defines rhetoric, the faculty of discovering what every subject 
affords of use for persuasion. 

2 



14 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

What is the principal difference of opinions in this 
respect ? 

Some think that bad men may be called orators ; 
whereas, others wish this name, and the art of which 
we speak, to be attributed entirely to the good. 

In what do they, who separate eloquence from the 
greatest merit in life, make the duty of an orator to 
consist ? 

In persuading, or in speaking pertinently to per- 
suade. 



quality of the thing * whether good or bad; the second, 
the import of the wordsrf by which it is defined. The 
principal difference of opinion in this respect is, that 
some think bad men may be called orators; whereas, 
others, whose sentiments we choose to adopt, desire 
this name, and the art of which we speak, to be at- 
tributed entirely to the good. J 

They who separate eloquence from the greatest and 
most desirable merit in life, make the duty of an orator 
to consist in persuading, or in speaking pertinently to 
persuade^ which a bad man may equally effect. Rhe- 
toric has, therefore, been commonly defined, " The 

* De qualitate ipsius rei. 

j- De comprehensione verborum. 

J But our opponents may say, that a bad man will make an exor- 
dium and narration, and use proofs and arguments, all equally good and 
cogent in their kind. And so also a robber will fight bravely, yet forti- 
tude will be a virtue. A vicious slave will patiently endure tortures, 
yet v, constancy will not be deprived of its praise." — Quint., lib. ii. 
cap. xxi. 

§' In persuadendo, aut in dicendo apposite ad persuadendum. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 15 

How, therefore, has rhetoric been commonly denned ? 
The power of persuading. 
From whom did this opinion originate ? 
Socrates. 

By what name does he designate it ? 
The workmanship of persuasion. 
What does Cicero say that the duty of an orator is ? 
To speak in a manner proper to persuade. 
In what does he make the end of eloquence to 
consist ? 
Persuasion. 



power of persuading."* This opinion originated from 
Socrates : not that he intended to dishonor his pro- 
fession, though he gives us a dangerous idea of rhetoric, 
by calling it the workmanship (?t£t0«$ %u«£yov) of per- 
suasion, f We find almost the same thing in the Gorgias 
of Plato ; but this was the opinion of that rhetorician, 
and not of Plato. Cicero has written, in many places, 
that the duty of an orator is to speak in "a manner 
proper to persuade. "J And in his books of rhetoric, § 
which undoubtedly he does not approve, he makes the 
end of eloquence to consist in persuasion. 

But does not money persuade ? Is not credit the 
authority of the speaker, and the dignity of an honor- 
able person attended with the same effect? Even, 
without speaking a word, the remembrance of past 

* Rhetoricen esse vim persuadendi. 
t Dicens esse rhetoricen persuadendi opificem. 

X Oratoris officium esse, dicere apposite ad persuadendum. See Cic. de 
Orat., lib. i. 

§ Finem facit persuadere. See Cic. de Inv., lib. i. 6. 



16 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

Enumerate from the text those examples where, with- 
out speaking a word, the remembrance of past services, 
the appearance of distress, and beauty of form, resulted 
in persuasion. 

How does Gorgias define rhetoric ? 

The power of persuading by speaking. 



services, the appearance of distress,' and beauty of 
form, are decisive in their favor. Did Antonius, 
pleading the cause of M. Aquilius,* trust to the force 
of his reasons, when he abruptly tore open his garment 
and exposed to view the wounds he received in fighting 
for his country? This act forced streams of tears from 
the eyes of the Roman people, who, not able to resist 
such a moving spectacle, acquitted the criminal. Ser- 
vius Gralbaf escaped the severity of the laws by ap- 

* "When I was to save M. Aquilius from banishment, while I 
touched upon the pathetic part, did I not feel all the passion I ex- 
pressed? When I saw the man whom I recollected to have been 
consul, to have been a general distinguished by the senate, to have 
mounted the steps of the capital in an oration, depressed, dejected, sor- 
rowful, in imminent danger, is it to be imagined that I attempted to 
awaken sentiments of pity in the breasts of others before I felt them in 
my own ? Yes, I perceived that it greatly affected the judges when I 
appealed to the old man's sorrow and dejection ; and when I did, what 
you, Crassus, have commended, when, not from any art of which I know 
not how to treat, but from a strong convulsion of grief and concern, I 
tore open his vest to show his scars." — Cic. de Orat, lib. ii. cap. 47. 

"f" The same person used to blame Servius Galba because, upon an 
action brought against him by L. Scribonius, he had worked the people 
to compassion. The circumstance, however, for which Rutilius blamed 
Galba, was, because he had reared almost upon his shoulders the young 
son of Caius Sulpicius Gallus, who was his relation; and thereby drew 
tears from the people, who remembered how dear his father had been 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 17 

In what does Theodectes make the end of rhetoric 
to consist ? 

In leading men wherever one pleases by the faculty 
of speaking. 

Is this definition sufficiently comprehensive ? 

No: flatterers and others, besides the orator, per- 



pearing in court with his own little children, and the 
son of Gallus Sulpicius in his arms; by which the sight 
of so many wretched objects melted the judges into 
compassion. This we find equally attested by some of 
our historians, and by a speech of Cato. What shall I 
say of Phryne, whose beauty was of more service in 
her cause than all the eloquence of Hyperides. 

Now, if all these examples persuade, consequently 
persuasion cannot be the end of rhetoric. 

Some, therefore, have appeared to themselves rather 
more exact, who, although of a similar opinion, define 
rhetoric "-the power of persuading by speaking."* 
Gorgias, in the book above cited, is at last reduced to 
this by Socrates. Theodectes concurs with these, if 
the work inscribed with his name be genuine. In this 
book, the end of rhetoric is, "to lead men wherever 
one pleases by the faculty of speaking, "f But this 
definition is not sufficiently comprehensive. Many 
others, besides the orator, persuade by their words, 

to ihera ; and who bad recommended himself and his two infant sons 
to the guardianship of the Roman people. Rutilius said, that by those 
touching circumstances, though Galba was both hated and detested by 
the people at that time, he was acquitted." — Cic. de Orat., lib. i. cap. 53. 

* Existimaverunt earn vim dicendo persuadendi. 

f Ducere homines dicendo in id, quod actor velit. 

2* 



18 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

suade by their words, and influence minds to what they 
please. 

Does an orator always persuade? 

No: sometimes it is not properly his end, and some- 
times this end is common to him with others. 

How does Aristotle define rhetoric ? 

The power of inventing whatever is persuasive in a 
discourse. 

In Plato's Gorgias how is it represented ? 

Inseparable from virtue. 



and influence minds to what they please. Flatterers 
and infamous persons frequently accomplish this end. 
On the contrary, an orator does not always persuade; 
sometimes it is not properly his end, and sometimes 
this end is common to him with other different cha- 
racters. 

Some, therefore, setting aside the consideration of 
the end, as Aristotle, have defined rhetoric to be, "the 
power of inventing whatever is persuasive in a dis- 
course."* This definition is equally as exceptionable 
as the one above mentioned; and is, likewise, defective 
in another respect, as it includes only invention, which, 
when separated from elocution, cannot constitute a 
speech. 

It appears from Plato's Gorgias that he was far 
from reputing rhetoric to be an art of a pernicious 
tendency; but that it is, or ought to be, if we were to 
conceive an adequate idea of it, inseparable from virtue. 

* *Era> y h"PnT0giM iwaf*tg } vregl exarov, t5 %t<*>fi<rat to Iv^o^evov iriQaviv. 
— Arist. Rhet., lib. i. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 19 

What is said in Plato's Phoedrus with regard to 
rhetoric ? 

That this art can never be perfect without an exact 
knowledge and strict observance of justice. 

Had these not been his real sentiments would he 
have written an apology for Socrates, and the eulogium 
of those brave citizens who lost their lives in the de- 
fence of their country? 

No. 

How was Socrates influenced when he refused to 
pronounce the speech which Lysias had composed for 
his defence ? 

With the same spirit. 

What was the custom of the orators of those times ? 

To write speeches for arraigned criminals, which 
they pronounced in their own defence. 



This he explains more clearly in his Phoedrus, where he 
says, that "this art can never be perfect without an 
exact knowledge and strict observance of justice."* I 
unite with him in opinion; for had these not been his 
real sentiments, would he have written an apology for 
Socrates, and the eulogium of those brave citizens who 
lost their lives in the defence of their country? This 
is certainly acting the part of an orator, and if he, in 
any respect, attacks the profession, it is on their ac- 
count who make a pernicious use of eloquence. Socra- 
tes, influenced with the same spirit, refused to pronounce 
the speech which Lysias had composed for his defence. 
For it was the custom of the orators of those times to 

* Hanc artem consummari citra justitiae quoque scientiam non posse. 



20 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

What was the object ? 

To elude the law which prohibited pleading for an- 
other. 

What masters does Plato in his Phoedrus condemn ? 

Those who separate rhetoric from justice, and pre- 
ferred probabilities to truth. 

How does Quintilian define rhetoric ? 

The science of speaking well. 



write speeches for arraigned criminals, which they pro- 
nounced in their own defence ; and, therefore, the law 
which prohibited pleading for another was eluded. 
Plato, likewise, in his Phoedrus, condemns those mas- 
ters who separated rhetoric from justice, and preferred 
probabilities to truth. 

Such are the definitions of rhetoric which have been 
principally agitated. For, to go through with all of 
them, is neither my design, nor do I think it possible; 
as most writers on arts have exhibited a perverse desire 
for defining nothing the same way, or in the terms of 
others who wrote before them. I am far from being 
influenced by the same ambition, and far from flat- 
tering myself with the glory of invention, shall rest 
satisfied with saying, that rhetoric is properly defined 
" The science of speaking well."* — Lib. ii. caj). 6. 

* Rkctoricen esse bene diccddi srientiam. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 21 



II. 

To what question does Quintilian here proceed? 
Whether rhetoric be an art. 

What title did those who wrote precepts of eloquence 
prefix to their books ? 
The art of speaking. 
What does Cicero call rhetoric ? 
An artificial eloquence. 



FROM QUINTILIAN'S INSTITUTES OF THE ORATOR. 
Is rhetoric an art f 

II. 

There would be no end, were I to expatiate on this 
matter, and indulge my pleasure. I shall therefore 
proceed to the following question: — "Is rhetoric an 
art?"* Those who wrote precepts of eloquence doubt- 
ed so little of this, that they prefixed no other title to 
their books, than the "Art of speaking." Cicero says, 
that what we call rhetoric, is only an artificial elo- 
quence .f Who, therefore, can be so devoid of sense 
and knowledge, as to imagine an art in architecture, 
in weaving, and in pottery; and that rhetoric, the excel- 
lency of which we have already shown, could have arrived 

* " For almost all other arts exist independently of one another, but 
that of eloquence, which is the art of speaking sensibly, skillfully, and 
beautifully, has no determined limits within which it can be bounded." 
— Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. cap. 2. 

f See Cic. de Invent., lib. i. cap. 6. 



22 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

How were those of a contrary opinion influenced ? 

More for the sake of exercising their ingenuity on 
the singularity of the subject than from any real con- 
viction. 

What example is given ? 

Polycrates, when he wrote panegyrics on Busiris and 
Clytemnestra, and composed an oration against So- 
crates. 

What do some maintain that rhetoric is ? 

A gift of nature, which may be assisted by exercise. 

What does Antonius, in Cicero's books of the orator, 
call it ? 

A sort of observation, and not an art. 

Was this Cicero's view of the subject ? 



at its present state of grandeur and perfection without 
the direction of art ? I am persuaded, that those of a 
contrary opinion were influenced more for the sake of 
exercising their ingenuity on the singularity of the 
subject, than from any real conviction. Such was Po- 
lycrates, when he wrote panegyrics on Busiris and 
Clytemnestra, and composed an oration which he pro- 
nounced against Socrates. 

Some maintain that rhetoric is a gift of nature, 
which may be assisted by exercise. Antonius, in 
Cicero's books of the orator, calls it a sort of observa- 
tion, and not an art.* But this is not there asserted 
as truth, but only to support the character of Antonius, 
who was a dissembler^ of art. Lysias seems to be of 

* Observationem quandem esse, non artem. 

f Dissimulator, "one who makes as though that were not which is." 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 23 

No : his object was only to support the character of 
Antonius, who was a dissembler of art. 

Who coincided in opinion with Antonius ? 

Lysias. 

How does Lysias show that the most simple and 
illiterate possess a kind of rhetoric when they speak 
for themselves ? 

They find something like an exordium, they make a 
narration, they prove, refute, and their prayers and 
entreaties have the force of a peroration. 

Recite from the text the cavils of Lysias. 



the same opinion, which he defends by saying, that 
the most simple and illiterate possess a kind of rhetoric 
when they speak for themselves. They find something 
like an exordium; they make a narration; they prove , 
refute, and their prayers and entreaties have the force 
of a peroration. Lysias and his adherents proceed 
afterwards to these cavils: — " That what is the effect of 
an art could not have existed before the art: but in all 
times men knew how to speak for themselves and 
against others: masters of rhetoric having been only 
of a late date, and first known about the time of Corax 
and Tisias: therefore an oratorical speech was prior to 
art; and consequently, rhetoric is not an art." We 
shall not endeavor to inquire into the time when rhe- 
toric began to be taught; although Homer mentions 
not only Phoenix,* who was a master skilled both in 
speaking and fighting, but also many other orators. 

* "Thus Phoenix, in Homer, says (II, lib. ix. v. 438) he was ordered 
to attend Achilles in the war by his father, Peleus, that he might teach 
him both how to speak and how to act." — Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. cap. 15. 



24 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

What writer is quoted to prove its antiquity? 

Homer. 

Enumerate from the text the examples from Homer. 

What answer will be sufficient to the cavils of Lysias? 

That everything perfected by art has its source in 
nature. 

Were this not so what should we exclude from the 
catalogue of arts ? 

Medicine. 

To what was the discovery of this art owing ? 

To observations on things conducive or hurtful to 
health. 

On what, in the opinion of some, is it altogether 
founded. 

On experiments. 



We may also observe from Homer, that all the parts of 
an oration are found in the speech of the three* chiefs 
deputed to Achilles; that several young men dispute 
for the prize of eloquence; and that among other orna- 
ments of sculpture on the buckler of Achilles, Vulcan 
did not forget law-causes and their pleaders. f 

It will, however, be sufficient to answer, "that every- 
thing perfected by art has its source in nature.% Were 
it not so, we should exclude medicine from the cata- 
logue of arts, the discovery of which was owing to 
observations made on things conducive or hurtful to 
health; and, in the opinion of some, founded altogether 

* Phoenix, Ajax, and Ulysses. 

t IL, lib. xviii. v. 469. 

X Omnia, quae ars consummaverit, a natura initia auxisse. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 25 

Explain from the * text the course pursued before it 
was reduced to an art. 

Would architecture, according to the reasoning of 
our opponents, be an art ? 

No: because the first men built their cottages with- 
out its direction. 

What other art would undergo a similar fate ? 

Music ; as every nation has its peculiarities in danc- 
ing and singing. 

What inference, therefore, must be drawn ? 

That the orator must have been made by art, and, 
therefore, could not exist before it. 

What other objection is urged ? 

That everything effected by one's self without learn- 
ing, does not depend on art; but men know how to 
speak, though they never learned to speak: therefore," 
&c. 



on experiments. Before it was reduced to an art, tents 
and bandages were applied to wounds; rest and absti- 
stinence cured a fever: not that the reason was then 
known, but the nature of the disease obliged men to 
this regimen. In like manner architecture cannot be 
an art; for the first men built their cottages without 
its direction. Music would undergo a similar fate; as 
every nation has its peculiarities in dancing and sing- 
ing. Now, if rhetoric be taken for any kind of speech, 
I shall admit that it was prior to art; but if every one 
who speaks is not an orator, and if, in the primitive 
ages men did not speak like orators, consequently the 
orator must have been made by art, and therefore could 
not exist before it. 
3 



26 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

How is this objection refuted ? 

By what has been already said. 

What example is adduced to confirm their argument ? 

Demades and iEschines. 

Can any person be an orator unless he has learned 
to be so ? 

No. 

To what, then, will the example of Demades and 
.ZEschines amount? 

To nothing more than that they applied themselves 
rather too late to eloquence. 



What I have said refutes this other objection: "That 
everything effected by one's self, without learning, does 
not depend on art; but men know how to speak, though 
they never learned to speak: therefore, &c." They 
adduce the example of Demades, a waterman, and 
JEschines, a comedian, to confirm this argument. I 
assert, however, that no person can be an orator unless 
he has learned to be so; and all that can be alleged 
concerning Demades and JEschines, will amount to 
nothing more than that they applied themselves rather 
too late to eloquence. iEschines, it is certain, was in 
his younger years instructed in the letters which his 
father taught. Of the learning of Demades nothing is 
positively asserted; though, by the continual exercise 
of speaking he might have become, as he was after- 
wards reputed, a great orator. There cannot be a 
more effectual way to learn this ; and, it may be said, 
he would have been a more accomplished speaker had 
he been assisted by the precepts of art; but, as he 
never attempted to publish any of his speeches, we 
cannot form a competent judgment of his eloquence. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 27 

What is the next objection ? 

When rhetoric asserts false things instead of true, 
does it follow that it assents to what is false ? 

No. 

When Hannibal adopted the expedient of extricating 
his army, whom did he deceive? 

Fabius. 

When Theopompus, the Spartan, by changing clothes 
with his wife, was about to escape from prison, did he 
practise the deception upon himself or the guards ? 

Upon the guards. 



The next objection is not so much one in reality as 
a mere cavil. " That art never assents to false opin- 
ions, because it cannot be constituted as such without 
precepts, which are always true: but rhetoric assents 
to what is false: therefore it is not an art." I admit 
that rhetoric sometimes asserts false things instead of 
true ; but it does not follow that it assents to what is 
false. There is a wide difference between assenting to 
a falsehood, and inducing others to assent. A general 
of an army has often recourse to stratagems : thus, 
when Hannibal perceived himself to be surrounded by 
Fabius, he ordered fagots to be fastened about the 
horns of some oxen, and fire being set to them, had 
the cattle driven up the mountains in the night, in 
order to let the enemy see he was decamping; but he 
deceived him ; for he was very well aware of the con- 
trivance. When Theopompus, the Spartan, by chang- 
ing clothes with his wife, was about to escape from 
prison, he did not practise the deception upon himself, 
but upon the guards. Thus, when an orator speaks 



28 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

When an orator speaks falsehood, what is his in- 
tention ? 

To deceive others. 

When Cicero boasted that he threw darkness on the 
intellects of the judges in the cause of Cluentius, was 
he unacquainted with all the intricacies that embar- 
rassed the fact ? 

No. 

What is said in the text with regard to the painter ? 

What is the fourth objection ? 

Whom can this objection affect ? 

Those who make persuasion the end of rhetoric. 

Can an orator, who loses his cause, be said to fulfil 
the injunctions of his art? 



falsehood instead of truth, he knows it to be false; he 
does not assent to it himself, his intention being to 
deceive others. When Cicero boasted that he threw 
darkness on the intellects of the judges, in the cause 
of Cluentius, could it be said that he was unacquainted 
with all the intricacies which embarrassed the fact? 
Or shall a painter, who so disposes his objects that 
some appear to project from the canvas, others to 
recede, be supposed not to know that they are all 
drawn upon a plane surface ? 

It is again objected, that "every art proposes to 
itself an end: but rhetoric has no end: therefore it is 
not an art." This objection can only affect those who 
make persuasion the end of rhetoric; but our orator, 
and our definition of art, are not restricted to events. 
An orator, indeed, strives to gain his cause ; but should 
he lose it, provided he has pleaded well, he fulfils the 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 29 

Yes, provided he has pleaded well. 
Recite from the text the examples of the pilot and 
physician. 



injunctions of his art. A pilot is desirous of coming 
safe into port; but should a storm sweep away his ship, 
is he, therefore, a less experienced pilot ? His keeping 
constantly to the helm* sufficiently attests that he was 
not wanting to his duty. A physician strives to cure 
a sick person; but if his remedies are obstructed in 
their operation, by either the violence of the disease, 
the intemperance of the patient, or some unforeseen ac- 
cident, he is not to be blamed, because he has satisfied 
all the directions of his art. So it is with the orator, 
whose end is to speak well; for it is in the act, and not 
in the effect, that art consists. The declaration is, 
therefore, false, "that arts know when they have ob- 
tained their end; but that rhetoric knows nothing of 
the matter;" for every orator knows when he acquits 
himself well. 

These are the principal objections which have been 
urged against rhetoric. There are others of less mo- 
ment, but derived from the same source. That rhetoric 
is an art is thus briefly demonstrated. If "art," as 
Cleanthes asserts, " is a power which prepares a way 
and establishes an order, "f it cannot be doubted but 
that we must keep to a certain way, and a certain 

* The hemistich, in the Latin text, " Dum clavum rectum teneam," 
is probably taken from Ennius : 

Dum clavum rectum teneam navimque gubernem, 
Non sum culpandus. 
f <Ar$ est potestas via, id est ordine, efficiens. 

3* 



30 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

How is rhetoric proved to be an art ? 

If art, as Cleanthes asserts, is a power which pre- 
pares a way and establishes an order, so in speaking 
well, we must keep to a certain way, and a certain 
order. 

What ought we to call art, according to the most 
generally received opinion ? 

Everything which, by a combination of concurring 
and co-exercised precepts, conducts to a useful end. 

Is rhetoric deficient in any of these things ? 

No. 

What two constituent parts has it in common with 
other arts ? 

Theory and practice. 



order in speaking well. And if, according to the most 
generally received opinion, we ought to call art, every- 
thing which, by a combination of concurring and co- 
exercised precepts conducts to a useful end; have we 
not shown that nothing of all this is wanting to rhe- 
toric ? Has it not likewise the two constituent parts 
of other arts, theory and practice ? And if logic be 
an art, as it is admitted to be by the same reason, so is 
rhetoric, the chief difference consisting not so much in 
the genus as species.* But we must not forget this 

* Logic has for its object all things upon which it undertakes to dis- 
pute ; ought, then, rhetoric to suffer a limitation, which only differs from 
it in a more diffuse style and manner 1 — Cap. 22. 

There are two kinds of discourse ; the one continued, which is called 
rhetoric; the other interrupted, called logic, which Zeno so slightly dis- 
tinguished that he compared the latter to a fist, and the former to an 
open hand. — Cap. 21. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 31 

If logic be an art, why must rhetoric be also an art ? 

Because they both participate of the same nature. 

Where must art necessarily exist ? 

Where a thing is done according to rule, and not at 
random. 

How is this exemplified in matters of eloquence ? 

An illiterate person will not only be vanquished by 
a learned, but also the learned by the more learned. 

III. 

Enumerate from the text those invectives which have 
been urged against eloquence. 



observation, that there art must be where a thing is 
done according to rule,* and not at random ;f and 
there art must be where he who has learned succeeds 
better than he who has not learned. But in matters 
of eloquence an illiterate person will not only be van- 
quished by a learned, but also the learned by the more 
learned; otherwise, we should not have had so many 
precepts, and so many excellent masters. — Lib. ii. 
cap. 18. 

FROM QUINTILIAN'S INSTITUTES OF THE ORATOR. 

The Utility of Rhetoric. 

III. 

A question arises, is 'rhetoric% useful ? Some urge 

the bitterest invectives against it, and, what is most 

disreputable, exert the force of eloquence against elo- 

* Artificialiter. f Inartificialiter. 

£ Sequitur qusestio, an utilis rhetorice ? 



32 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

With what do comic poets reproach Socrates ? 

With teaching how to make a bad cause good. 

How are Plato and L ysias represented ? 

Promising the same thing. 

Why was rhetoric banished from Sparta, and so re- 
stricted at Athens that the orator was not at liberty to 
move the passions? 

Because eloquence had been not only the ruin of 
private persons, but the destruction of whole cities and 
republics. 



quence. "That by it the wicked are rescued from pun- 
ishment, and the innocent oppressed by its artifices; 
that it perverts good counsel, and enforces bad ; that it 
foments popular commotions and seditions in states; 
that it arms nations against each other, and makes 
them irreconcilable enemies; and that its power is 
never more manifested than ivhen error and falsehood 
triumph over truth" 

Comic poets* reproach Socrates with teaching how 
to make a bad cause good ;f and Plato represents Ly- 
sias and Gorgias promising the same thing. To these 
are added several examples of Greeks and Romans, 
and a long enumeration of orators, whose eloquence 
was not only the ruin of private persons, but the de- 
struction of whole cities and republics; and for this 
reason rhetoric was banished from Sparta, and so re- 
stricted at Athens, that the orator was not at liberty to 
move the passions. 

* Aristoph. in Nub. 

j- Nam et Socrati objiciunt comici, docere eum quomodo pcjorem causam 
meliorem faciat. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 33 

By granting all this as sound argument, what infer- 
ence must we necessarily draw? 

That neither generals of armies, nor magistrates, 
nor medicine, nor philosophy, will be useful. 

Why? 

Because Flaminius, an imprudent general, lost one 
of our armies. The Gracchi, Saturninus, and Glaucia, 
to raise themselves to dignities, put Rome in an uproar. 
Physicians sometimes administer poison; and among 
philosophers, some have been guilty of the most enor- 
mous crimes. 

What other instances are mentioned in the text ? 



By granting all this as sound argument, we must 
necessarily draw this inference; that neither generals 
of armies, nor magistrates, nor medicine, nor philo- 
sophy, will be useful. Flaminius, an imprudent gene- 
ral, lost one of our armies. The Gracchi, Saturninus, 
and Glaucia, to raise themselves to dignities, put Rome 
in an uproar. Physicians sometimes administer poi- 
sons; and among philosophers, some have been guilty 
of the most enormous crimes. Let us not eat of the 
meats which are spread upon our tables; they have 
frequently caused disease. Let us never go into houses ; 
they may fall and crush us to death. Let not our sol- 
diers be armed with swords ; a robber may use the 
same weapons against us. Who is ignorant but that 
the most necessary things in life, as air, fire, water, 
and even the celestial bodies,* are sometimes prejudicial 
to us? 

* Solem Lunamque prcBcipua siderum. 



34 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Enumerate those examples which can be alleged in 
favor of eloquence. 



But how many examples can be alleged in our favor? 
Did not Appius, the Blind, by the force of his elo- 
quence, dissuade the senate from making a dishonor- 
able peace with Pyrrhus ? Did not Cicero's divine 
eloquence appear more popular than the Agrarian 
law, which he attacked? Did it not disconcert the 
audacious measures of Catiline? And did he not, 
even in his civil capacity, obtain honors by it which 
were conferred only on the most illustrious conquerors? 
Is it not the orator who arouses the drooping courage 
of the soldier, who animates him amidst the greatest 
dangers, and persuades him to prefer a glorious death 
to a life of infamy?- — Lib, ii, cap, 17. 



INVENTION. 35 



PART I. 



Into how many parts is rhetoric divided ? 
Four: Invention, Disposition, Elocution, and 
Pronunciation.* 



INVENTION. 

Invention, in rhetoric, signifies the finding out, and 
selection of certain arguments which the orator is to 
use for proving or illustrating the subject, conciliating 
the minds, and moving the passions of the hearers. 

* "The whole art of oratory, as we find it delivered by the generality 
of the greatest masters, consists of these five parts : — Invention, Dispo- 
sition, Elocution, Memory, Pronunciation, or Action." — Quint., lib. iii. cap. 3. 

" They next constitute, as it were, five members of eloquence, viz : 
inventing what you are to say ; the arrangement of what you have in- 
vented ; the embellishment of expression ; next, the getting it by heart ; 
and, last of all, come the action and the delivery."— Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. 
cap. 19. 

In another place, Cicero has properly excluded memory from his 
division. Hence, says Ramus: — "Dicis oratori tria esse videnda, quid 
dicat, quo quidque loco, et quomodo; primo membro Inventionem, se- 
cundo Collocationem, tertio Elocutionem et Actionem comprehendis : me- 
moriam igitur in hac trium membrorum partitione praetermittis." — Rhet., 
lib. iii. 



36 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Cicero,* who wrote four books u De Inventione" con- 
siders this the principal part of oratory. This inven- 
tion of the orators cannot, according to Lord Bacon, 
be properly called invention : because, to invent, is to 
discover things not known before, not to recollect those 
which are ; whereas, the use and office of this rhetorical 
invention are only, out of the stock of knowledge, laid 
up in the mind, to select such materials as are advan- 
tageous for the purpose. 

The same author divides this faculty of invention 
into two parts, the one topical, the other promptuary : 
the first points out the way in which we are to pursue 
the argument; the latter only lays up and disposes 
those things in the mind for which we have frequent 
occasion. 

Invention furnishes the orator with those different 
kinds of arguments and motives, which are adapted to 
the various purposes he has in view. The requisites of 
invention are a vivid or lively imagination, and quick- 
ness of thought, great learning and extensive know- 
ledge, previous consideration, and clear, enlarged ap- 
prehensions of the subject. 



From Cicero de Oratore. 

There are three things requisite to invention in 
speaking; quickness, method, which, if we please we 
may call art, and application. The chief part I must 
attribute to genius; but application will improve the 
slowness of genius itself. Application has great in- 

* Only two of these are now extant. 



INVENTION. 37 

fluence in all cases, but in pleading the greatest: it 
should be the principal object of our care and assiduity, 
and, with its assistance, there is nothing but we may 
surmount. It is by application we can make ourselves 
masters of a cause; it is by this that we give such at- 
tention to our antagonist as to lay hold, not only of his 
sentiments, but even of his words. In a word, it is 
owing to application that we can make advantage even 
of his very look, which is generally the index of the 
mind. But good sense must direct us to be so cautious, 
as that he can take no advantage of this. In the next 
place, it is owing to application that our mind can 
make an excursion into those fields which I shall soon 
open, so as to enter thoroughly into the cause, and 
have all its powers and recollection in readiness. But 
to apply memory, utterance, and strength, as it were, 
to illuminate all these matters, that is the great con- 
sideration. There is, indeed, some small space, into 
which we may place art between memory and applica- 
tion. But art only points out the place where you are 
to search, the place where the end of which you are 
in pursuit lies : all the rest consists in care, attention, 
reflection, vigilance, assiduity, and industry. I shall 
include all these in one word, which I have often men- 
tioned, and that is application: for it is in this single 
virtue that all the other virtues consist. — Lib. ii. 
cap. 35. 



What is invention? 

Invention is the discovery of such arguments as are 
4 



38 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

proper to illustrate the subject, conciliate the minds, 
and move the passions of the audience.* 

What is an argument ? 

An argument, says Quintilian, is a way for making 
good a proof, by which one thing is concluded from 
another, and what is doubtful is confirmed by what is 
not-t 

On what are all arguments founded ? 

On reason, morals, or the affections. 

What is the object of arguments from reason ? 

To inform the judgment, or to instruct. 

How are arguments from reason divided ? 

Into inartificial and artificial. 

What are inartificial arguments from reason ? 

They are such as do not arise from the subject, but 
from things of a different nature. They are all taken 
from authorities, and are, by Cicero, in his Topics, 
called testimony. 

What proofs belong to the inartificial ? 

Prejudices, reports, tortures, written deeds or instru- 
ments, oaths, and witnesses. 

Of what do artificial proofs consist ? 

Of signs, arguments, or examples. 

* "Thus, the whole business of speaking depends upon three points 
of persuasion: to prove the side we take to be right; to conciliate the 
favor of our audience; and to direct their passions to every emotion 
that the nature of the cause requires." — Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. cap. 27. 

f Cicero says, an argument is a reason which induces us to believe 
what we previously doubted. 



INVENTION. 39 



OF THE DIVISION OF PROOFS. 

Aristotle distinguishes two sorts of proofs, in which 
he has been generally followed by all succeeding au- 
thors. Some of these are extrinsic to the subject, and 
independent of art ; others result from the subject, or 
are rather what the orator produces out of his own fund. 
The first have, therefore, been called inartificial, and 
the second artificial. To the inartificial belong preju- 
dices, reports, tortures, written deeds, or instruments, 
oaths, and witnesses; all which afford matter for most 
lawsuits. — Quint., lib. v. cap. 1. 

We are now to speak of proof which is inartificial ; 
which is proper in judicial causes. Now there are 
five things which constitute this sort of proof; the 
law, witnesses, compacts, examinations, and oaths. — 
Arist. Bhet., lib. i. cap. 16. 

" The second sort of proof, which is altogether arti- 
ficial, consists of things proper to enforce credibility 
and conviction." — Quint., lib. iv. cap. 8. 

" Every artificial proof consists of signs, arguments, 
or examples. I am not ignorant that they are con- 
sidered by many as making a part of arguments, and 
this was one reason I had for distinguishing them, 
because of their near resemblance to inartificial proofs ; 
for bloody clothes, outcries, bruises, and the like, bear 
a sort of affinity to instruments in writing, reports, 
and witnesses ; being not of the orator's invention, but 
brought to him with the cause." — Id., lib. iv. cap. 9. 

"With regard to proof, two things present them- 
selves to the orator : first, those points which are not 



40 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

invented by him, but arise from the reason and nature 
of the subject; such as deeds, evidences, bargains, con- 
ventions, trials, laws, acts of tlie senate, precedents, 
decrees, opinions, and every such like point which is 
suggested to him by his cause and client: the other 
point is that which entirely consists in disputation, and 
the disposition of the orator's pleading. In the first 
of these divisions he is to employ his thoughts how to 
make the best of the arguments which are ready to his 
hand; but in the second, he is both to manage his 
arguments, and to invent them." — Cic. de Or at., lib. ii. 
cap. 27. 



How many kinds of orations are there ? 

Three : Demonstrative, Deliberative, and Judicial. 

Who was the author of this division ? 

Aristotle. 

Why did he give another name to the deliberative 
kind? 

In order to adapt his ideas to the democratic form of 
government then established at Athens. 

What is the scope of a demonstrative oration ? 

To praise or dispraise persons or things.* 

How is it used in speaking of a person ? 

When for his learning, eloquence, dignity, wisdom, 
and authority, we praise Cicero ; or, for his infamous 
and abandoned life, censure Catiline. 

How many methods do rhetoricians prescribe for 
praising or dispraising persons ? 

* Quintilian, in the third book of his Institutes, extends the applica- 
tion of Demonstrative discourses to the praise of gods ; the praises and 
dispraise of men ; and the praises of cities and places. 



INVENTION. 41 

Two. 

What are they? 

The one is to follow the order in which everything 
happened, which is mentioned in the discourse, as Iso- 
crates has done in his funeral oration upon Evagoras, 
King of Salamis ; the other is to reduce what is said 
under certain general heads, without a strict regard to 
the order of time, as Suetonius, in his lives of the 
twelve Caesars. 

How is it used in speaking of a thing ? 

When from truth, honor, time, place, and manner, 
we applaud the voluntary return of Regulus to his 
enemies ; or, on the contrary, condemn the self-murder 
of Cato at Utica. 

What are the chief subjects of demonstrative elo- 
quence ? 

Panegyrics, invectives, gratulatory and funeral ora- 
tions. 

What orations may be ranked under this head ? 

Cicero's oration concerning the answers of the sooth- 
sayers, his oration for Marcellus, and his invective 
against Piso. 



FROM QUINTILIAN. 
Demonstrative Eloquence.* 

I shall begin with the kind which is adapted for 
praise and dispraise. Aristotle and Theophrastus, who 
was of his opinion, seem to have excluded it from all 
civil affairs, and to have restrained its functions to the 

* Vide Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. cap. 84, 85. 

4* 



42 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

excitement of pleasure in an auditory; because this is 
all that can be naturally expected from the show and 
ostentation from which it borrowed its name. But the 
Roman usages and customs have given it a place in the 
transactions of civil life ; for funeral orations are duties 
frequently annexed to some public office, and are often 
pronounced by our magistrates by a decree of the 
senate; and to commend or depreciate the character 
of a witness is of some importance in trials. Persons 
accused are also allowed to retain their panegyrists; 
and the defamatory memorials published against those 
who stand in competition with each other, as against 
Piso, Clodius, and Curio, have sometimes influenced 
the senate to repute them as verdicts against them. 

It is the property of praise to amplify and adorn 
things, especially gods and men, and sometimes ani- 
mate and inanimate beings. 

With regard to gods in general, we first respect the 
majesty of their nature; and next, descending *to par- 
ticulars, we may pass encomiums on their power, their 
inventions, and the several advantages in life they 
have introduced among men. Power is displayed, as 
in Jupiter, by governing mankind; in Mars by presid- 
ing over war; in Neptune by ruling the ocean. In- 
ventions are commended, as of arts, in Minerva ; of 
letters, in Mercury; of medicine, in Apollo; of corn, 
in Ceres; of wine, in Bacchus. 

The praise of men has more variety, and is first dis- 
tinguished by the time that preceded their birth, the 
time of their life, and what happened after their death. 
Country, parents, ancestors, preceded their birth, 
which may be considered two ways: if noble, they 



INVENTION. 43 

have equalled the glory of their progenitors; if other- 
wise, they have dignified the obscurity of their birth 
by the lustre of their actions. Other particulars may 
also be enumerated ; especially presages of future gran- 
deur, as of the son of Thetis, who, as the oracle de- 
clared, was to be greater than his father. 

Personal encomiums are deducible from the qualities 
of the mind, body, and external advantages. The last 
are the least considerable, and are spoken of differently 
according as the party is more or less endowed with 
them. One time, the comely form and strength of the 
hero are described, as Homer does in regard to Aga- 
memnon and Achilles. At another time the weak 
frame of the body raises our admiration; so the same 
poet represents Tydeus, diminutive in size, but a gal- 
lant soldier. 

The goods of the mind are always truly laudable. 
This is a copious subject, and the orator has a variety 
of resources for displaying his talents. He may follow 
the order of time and actions, and in the first years 
commend the genius and good disposition ; he may next 
pass to education and acquired sciences, and afterwards 
to the consistent tenor of life in words and actions. 
To treat his subject in a different manner, he may re- 
duce all to certain virtues, as fortitude, justice, tem- 
perance, assigning to each how far their votary has 
produced a copy of them in his life. It is the subject 
that must determine which of the two ways is prefer- 
able : and the more singular a thing is, the greater 
will be the pleasure of the auditory; for great must be 
their admiration when they hear that this was the only 
man, or the first that did so; or that very few can share 



44 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

the glory with him; or that he exceeded expectation; 
or, that in what he engaged and accomplished, he 
showed a true disinterested spirit. 

The same order may be observed in dispraise, but 
with a variation in the coloring; for if the meanness of 
birth be a disgrace to some, so also is nobility of birth 
to many, whose vices it makes more conspicuous, and 
brands with deeper infamy. Predictions gave sufficient 
warning of the calamities which Paris was to bring 
upon his country. Thersites, ugly and deformed, as 
Homer paints him, became the laughing-stock of the 
whole army. Nireus, a coward, and Plisthenes, a de- 
bauchee, show that a graceful form, without virtue, 
produces contempt. A mind may be as remarkable for 
vicious as virtuous qualities; and these may be treated 
both ways, as directed for opposite subjects of praise. 
Infamy has reached some even beyond the grave, as 
Maelius,* whose house was leveled with the ground : and 
the prenomen Marcus was forever extinguished in the 
family of Manlius.f As to the living, the judgment of 
the public must be the rule of our esteem, and the good 
or bad reputation they have acquired will be a sufficient 
sanction for our praise or dispraise. 

Cities have their praise as well as men. Their 
founder is looked upon as a father, and their antiquity 
renders them very considerable : for which reason we 
see people who boast themselves as ancient as that 
tract of the earth they inhabit; and are confident of 
having preserved traditionary accounts of all their 
transactions, whether virtuous or vicious. These con- 
siderations are for cities in general; but there are some 

* Livy, lib iv. f Ibid., lib. vi. 



INVENTION. 45 

peculiar to them, deduced from their situation, their 
fortifications, their citizens, whose glory makes that of 
the state, as the glory of children reflects on their 
parents. Certain places are also the theme of praise ; 
such is Sicily, as represented in that elegant descrip- 
tion of Cicero.* Their beauty and advantage are 
chiefly considered: beauty in harbors, plains, and plea- 
sant groves and meadows; and advantage in the salu- 
brity of the air, as well as the fruitfulness of the soil, 
and the like. As I would not, therefore, entirely con- 
fine the demonstrative kind to questions relating to 
what is honest, so I believe it should be confined to 
quality; although all the three states may unite in it, 
which Cicero observed in Caesar, who used them all 
in his harangues against Cato. — Lib. iii. cap. 7. 



In what does a deliberative oration consist ? 

In recommending, or dissuading from, some import- 
ant public measure, f 

To what is this species of eloquence chiefly confined ? 

To the agitation of public aflairs in popular assem- 
blies. 

What is its object ? 

Persuasion. 

How is the orator to accomplish this end ? 

By applying himself to all the principles of action in 

* Verres, IV. 

t f: The chief things concerning which all men consult, and argue 
upon in deliberation, are five in number ; of wealth, of war, and peace, 
of the preservation of the country, of what things are exported and im- 
ported, and of the making and observance of laws/' — Jlris. Rhet., book i. 
ch. 4. 



46 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

our nature ; to the passions and to the heart, as well as 
to the understanding. 

What topics are generally used in recommending, or 
dissuading from, public measures ? 

Safety, profit, pleasure, justice, honor, and facility. 

What orations may be referred to the deliberative 
kind? 

Cicero's fourth oration against Catiline; his first and 
ninth against Mark Antony; and Cato and Caesar's 
speeches relative to the Catiline conspirators. 



FROM QUINTILIAN. 

Deliberative Eloquence. 

I am surprised how some authors could have circum- 
scribed the deliberative kind by utility alone. Were it 
necessary to reduce it to one object, I should prefer to 
follow the opinion of Cicero, who made this matter to 
consist chiefly in dignity. I make no doubt, however, 
that those authors, according to the specious maxim of 
the Stoics, acknowledge "nothing useful but what is 
honest;" and I would willingly admit the truth of their 
assertion, were we always to deliberate in concert with 
wise and virtuous men. But it is our fate to speak 
before a people chiefly unlearned, to whose intellects, 
it being their duty to decide these matters as judges, 
we must adapt our words and ideas. There are, in- 
deed, many who do not think some things sufficiently 
useful, which they believe to be honest; and other 
things, which they cannot doubt of being base, they 
approve under the appearance of utility. Of this the 



INVENTION. 47 

Numantine peace and Caudinian capitulation are 
proofs.* 

The generality of Greekf authors were of opinion 
that the deliberative kind belonged entirely to ha- 
rangues made in the assemblies of the people, and 
therefore had no other object than the administration 
of the state. Cicero, for the most part, appears to be 
of the same opinion, and imagines, that in this kind 
an orator has scarcely any other topics to discuss but 
peace or war; troops to raise and provide for; works 
for the public good; contributions and subsidies. He 
should, therefore, be acquainted with the resources of 
a state, its usages and manner of ordering matters, that 
from the very nature of the things, and the disposition 
of minds, his arguments might be more strong and per- 
suasive. I think, however, that this subject may admit 
of greater variety, as there are many kinds of delibe- 
rations, and persons who deliberate. 

Wherefore, in persuading and dissuading, (the two 
parts of a deliberative discourse,) three things ought to 
be particularly considered : " What the subject for 
deliberation is; the person who consults; and the per- 
son who is consulted." 

1. As to the thing deliberated upon, it is either cer- 
tain that it is practicable, or it is not. If uncertain, 
the whole question will here rest, or the principal part. 
For it often happens that we first prove, that though a 
thing may be practicable, it ought not to be done; and, 
secondly, that it is impracticable. A state of conjec- 
ture constitutes a question of the kind: as, "Whether 

* Livy, lib. ix. Cic. de Offic, lib. iii. 
t Arist. Ehet., lib. i. cap. 8. 



48 THE ART OE RHETORIC. 

some isthmuses could be cut through ? whether a harbor 
could be made at Ostia? whether Alexander should find 
lands beyond the ocean?" Allowing, also, possibility, 
the state will be sometimes conjectural; as if the ques- 
tion should be : "Whether it be likely that the Romans 
will conquer Carthage ? or, whether Hannibal will pass 
out of Italy should Scipio make Africa the seat of war? 
or, whether the Samnites will preserve inviolate the 
faith of treaties should the Romans lay clown their 
arms ?" Some things are possible and practicable, and 
in all probability may happen, but at another time, and 
in another place, and after another manner. 

Where there is no room for conjecture, we may look 
to other particulars. And first, an affair is deliberated 
upon, either on its own account, or on account of other 
intervening extrinsic causes. On its own account, as 
when the Roman senators deliberated, "Whether they 
should raise a fund for the pay of the army,* and other 
military expenses ?" This deliberation will be simple. 
On account of other intervening extrinsic causes, which 
are of two sorts. First, by showing reasons for doing 
a thing, as when the senate deliberated "Whether the 
three Fabiif should be delivered to the Gauls, who, if 
they were not, threatened to declare war? Secondly, by 
showing reasons for not doing a thing; as when Caesar 
deliberated "Whether he should continue his march 
into Germany, J notwithstanding the consternation of 
his soldiers, who all made their wills, as promising to 
themselves certain death?" These subjects of delibe- 
ration contain two clauses : the first, because the Gauls 

* See Livy, lib. iv. -J- Ibid., lib. v. 

J Casar, lib. i.; de Bell. Gal. 



INVENTION. 49 

threaten to declare war; but the question may be, 
whether, waiving the just resentment of the Gauls, it 
would not be proper to deliver up to them the three 
ambassadors, who, contrary to the law of nations, com- 
mitted acts of hostility, by bringing on a battle, and 
killed the king, to whom they had been deputed on the 
business of the republic ? In the other deliberation, 
nothing occurs to deter Caesar from his enterprise, but 
the consternation of his soldiers ; yet the question may 
be, whether, regardless of this accident, he ought to 
penetrate into Germany? But in these deliberations 
we should always begin with the principal question, 
which, even abstracting from all incidental questions, 
may form a proper subject for deliberation. 

2. But with regard to the persons consulting, a pro- 
per decorum should be preserved; for, although exam- 
ples may be of great weight in counsels, because men 
are easily induced to give their assent to what has been 
already experienced; yet we should weigh well the 
authority of the examples proposed, and before whom, 
and for whom, they are proposed. The minds of 
men are differently constituted; and they who delibe- 
rate are many assembled together, or single persons; 
but there is a difference in both. If many, it is of 
great importance whether it be the senate or people; 
the Romans, or Fidenates, Greeks, or Barbarians. If 
single persons, whether Cato or Marius ought to be a 
candidate for such honors ; and whether Scipio, in pre- 
ference to Fabius, should be consulted on the manner 
of conducting the war. Age, sex, and dignity, will 
also have their peculiar considerations ; but the greatest 
5 



50 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

difficulty lies in the consideration of the party's moral 
character. 

3. The character of the adviser is also of great im- 
portance; because past life, if illustrious, or noble 
extraction, or respectable age, or fortune, raises ex- 
pectation on these occasions; and nothing of those 
things which may be spoken must be inconsistent with 
his character. But speakers of a contrary character 
require a more humble manner; as the liberty of speech 
assumed by the former would be called impertinence, 
and temerity in the latter. And while authority is 
fully sufficient for some, others can scarcely recommend 
themselves by all the force of reason. — Lib. iii. cap. 8. 



FROM CICERO DE ORATORE. 

Deliberative Eloquence. 

But such particulars must appear with less pomp in 
the senate; for the senate is an assembly of wise men, 
where many must have liberty to speak in their several 
turns, and where one must avoid all affectation of wit, 
and all ostentation of abilities. But a public assembly 
requires all the energy, the weight, and the coloring of 
eloquence. Therefore, in debate, the principal charac- 
ter is dignity. For he who thinks that utility is, never 
considers what the person in debate most wishes for, 
but sometimes what he chooses to practise. For there 
is not a man, especially in so noble a state as this, who 
does not think that dignity is the most desirable cha- 
racter. But interest generally prevails when a man 
is afraid that, if his interest is neglected, he shall be 
incapable of retaining his dignity. But all difference 



INVENTION. 51 

of sentiments among mankind consists in this : which 
proposition is most advantageous ? Or, if that is 
agreed upon, whether they ought to pay more regard 
to honesty or interest f As these often seem incom- 
patible with one another, the man who stands by his 
interest, expatiates upon the advantages of peace, 
riches, power, money, revenues, safety, and a fine 
army; together with other advantages, which are com- 
puted by their utility; at the same time, he exhibits 
the inconveniences of the contrary measures. The 
man who consults dignity will recount the examples of 
our ancestors, who pursued glory, though attended with 
danger ; he will display the immortal fame that we 
leave to posterity; he will maintain that the interest of 
his country arises from her honor, and is inseparable 
from her dignity. But in both these questions the 
points in dispute are : what can be done, or what can- 
not be done ? For all debate is at an end if it is ad- 
mitted on all hands that a measure is either absolutely 
impossible, or inevitably necessary: and the man who 
has proved this before the other members are aware of 
it, must be allowed to see farther than the rest. But 
to have weight in political debates, the chief thing is, 
to be acquainted with the state of the republic, and»to 
know the manners and customs of your country : these, 
as they often change, occasion as frequent changes in 
the manner of speaking; and although the power of 
eloquence is generally the same, yet because the dig- 
nity of the people is the highest, the cause of our 
country the weightiest, the inclinations and commo- 
tions of the many the strongest, all this seems to 
require a more grand and elevated manner of speak- 



52 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

ing. And the greatest part of the harangue must be 
applied to the passions, either by way of encourage- 
ment, or commemoration, or they are to be worked 
upon by hopes, by fears, by desire, or by glory; and 
they are frequently to be reclaimed from rashness, re- 
sentment, hope, injury, hatred, and cruelty. — Lib. ii. 
cap. 82. 



What is a judicial oration ? 

A judicial oration is that species of oratory which is 
used in accusing or defending.* 

By what name is the principal question, or point of 
dispute, in all controversies designated ? 

States. -\ 

What is meant by the state of a cause ? 

The principal point in dispute between contending 
parties, upon the proof of which the whole cause or 
controversy depends. J 

How is this exemplified ? 

Milo was accused for killing Clodius ; Milo confessed 
he killed him, but said he did it justly : now the state 

* Quintilian, in the third book of his Institutes, says: "I shall now 
speak of the judicial kind, which, although the most extensive and 
various, consists only of two offices, accusation and defence." 

j" The state of a controversy is expressed, by several other names, in 
ancient writers, as " The Constitution of the Cause" — " The General 
Head" — and "The Chief Question." Our common law expresses it by 
one word ; namely, the Issue : which interpreters define, " that point of 
matter depending in suit whereupon the parties join, and put their 
cause to the trial." 

J Status est qusestio, qua? ex prima causarum conflictione nascitur; 
ut, Sylla, conjuravisti cum Catilina; depulsio vero defensoris; non con- 
juravi: ex hac prima conflictione nascitur ilia quaestio, conjuraveritne 
Sylla cum Catilina ?-— -Qitwtf. Inst., lib. iii. cap. 6. 



INVENTION. 53 

of the cause is, did Milo kill Claudius justly, or 
unjustly ? 

How many general states are there ? 

Three: Conjectural, Definitive, and the State of 
Quality.* 

When is a cause conjectural ? 

When it is inquired whether the thing was done or 
not : as, did Cselius prepare poison for Clodia ? 

When is a cause definitive ? 

When the fact is not denied, but the dispute turns 
upon the name and nature of the crime ; as, whether to 
take a sacred thing out of a private house be theft or 
sacrilege ? 

What is a cause in quality? 

When the contending parties are agreed both as to 
the name and nature of the action, but the dispute turns 
upon its justice ; as, was it lawful or unlawful for Milo 
to slay Clodius ? 



FROM QUINTILIANS INSTITUTES. 

States. 

This state of the cause is that which the orator pro- 
poses to himself chiefly to obtain, and into which the 
judge understands he must particularly examine; for 
on this the cause is built. 

Most authors have distinguished three general states ; 
of Conjecture Definition, and Quality. This is the 

* Cicero and Quintilian reduce the states to three ; to these Aristotle 
and Vossius add a fourth; namely, of Quantity 5 as, " Whether the in- 
jury be so great as it is said to be." 

5* 



54 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

division which Cicero adopts in his books of the Ora- 
tor, and thinks every matter of debate and contention 
may regard, " Whether the thing is, what it is, and of 
what sort it is." 

Let us, therefore, believe those to whose authority 
even Cicero has submitted, acknowledging that only 
three questions can arise in all manner of contro- 
versies; as, "Whether a thing be, what it is, and of 
what sort it is." This Nature herself teaches us; for 
we must first conceive that our doubts have some ob- 
ject, and we cannot form a judgment on the nature of 
this object and its quality, unless we are previously 
assured that it exists. This, therefore, will be the first 
question. But to be certain of its existence, does not 
prove that we know what it is. When this is cleared 
up, nothing remains except quality, beyond which there 
is nothing. — Lib. iii. cap. 6. 



What distinction exists between deliberative and 
judicial eloquence ? 

In deliberative eloquence the great object is persua- 
sion, and the speaker of course directs himself to the 
passions as well as to the understanding; but, in judi- 
cial eloquence, his object is conviction, and, therefore, 
it is chiefly or solely to the understanding that his elo- 
quence is addressed. 

What discourses may be referred to the judicial 
kind? 

Cicero's orations for Milo, Rabirius, Ccelius, and 
Ligarius. 

What is the object of arguments from morals ? 



INVENTION. 55 

To procure favor, or to please. 

What does this part of invention comprise ? 

The disposition, character, and qualifications of the 
speaker.* 

By what name does Quintilian designate it ? 

A propriety of manners. 

How many qualities are requisite in an orator, in 
order to render what he says acceptable to his hearers? 

Four : wisdom, integrity, benevolence, and modesty.f 

What is the object of arguments from the affections? 

To move the passions, or to persuade. J 

How is this to be accomplished ? 

By being moved ourselves; by painting the object of 
that passion which we wish to raise, in the most natu- 
ral and striking manner; and by describing it with 

* "Honorable actions and upright lives, in the pleader and his client, 
greatly contribute to a successful termination of his cause, while a con- 
trary character in the adverse party tends effectually to their defeat. 
The same effect is likewise produced by conciliating, as much as we 
can, the minds of the judges. A favorable opinion, again, is gained 
by dignity of character, by the actions which a person has performed, 
by his reputation, which are much more easily set forth if they are real 
than if they are fictitious." — Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. 43. 

j- It was a favorite position among the ancient rhetoricians, that in 
order to be a truly eloquent and persuasive speaker, nothing was more 
necessary than to be a virtuous man : " Non posse oratorem esse nisi 
virum bonum." Longinus, in the latter part of the forty-fourth section 
on the Sublime, asserts that genius can never exert itself, or rise to 
sublimity, where virtue is neglected and the morals are depraved. And 
the Archbishop of Cambray says, that " an orator cannot be fit to persuade 
people, unless he be inflexibly upright." 

J The power to excite, appease, and sway the passions, agreeably to 
the design of the speaker, is what Quintilian calls " the soul and spirit 
of his art." 



56 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

such circumstances as are likely to awaken it in the 
minds of others. 

What are the affections, or passions ? 

They are certain emotions of the mind, accompanied 
either with pleasure or pain. 

How does Aristotle define them ? 

The affections, says he, are those things by which 
men being moved, make a different judgment of things.* 

What passions may be referred to the different kinds 
of orations? 

To the demonstrative may be referred joy and sor- 
row, love and hatred, emulation and contempt; to the 
deliberative, fear, hope, and shame; and to the judicial, 
anger and lenity, pity and indignation. 



FROM QUINTILIAN. 
Judicial Eloquence. 

I shall now speak of the judicial kind, which, al- 
though the most various and extensive, consists only of 
two offices, Accusation and Defence. Its parts, accord- 
ing to most authors, are five : Exordium, Narration, 
Proof, Refutation, and Peroration. To these some 
have added Division, Proposition, and Digression ; but 
the first two are included in the Proof. As to Digres- 
sion, if it be foreign to the cause, it cannot make a part 

*. Cicero, in his De Oratore, book ii. chapter 42, says : " For men 
often judge under the influence of hatred, love, desire, anger, grief, joy, 
hope. fear, mistake, or some emotion of the mind, rather than of truth, 
precept, law, or equity." 



INVENTION. 57 

of it ; and if it belong to the cause, it may serve as a 
help or ornament to the parts from which it digresses. 
But if everything in a cause should be called a part of 
it, why should not argument, similitude, common place, 
passions, and examples be also called parts ? Nor do I 
agree with those, as Aristotle, who exclude Refutation 
as included in Proof; for the one establishes, and the 
other destroys, which are different things. The same 
author differs also from us in opinion, by placing Pro- 
position, and not Narration, after the exordium. 

But I do not pretend that the orator must think of 
every one of these parts in the same order that he is 
to speak. His principal care should be to examine into 
the nature of the cause which he undertakes; to know 
the state of the question; what makes for and against 
it; tuhat he is to prove, and what to refute. In the 
next place, he must arrange his narration; for its 
exposition is a preparation of proofs; nor can it be 
useful, unless it first appears what he may promise to 
himself from his proofs. And, lastly, he must consider 
the means of procuring the favor of the judges ; for it 
must be from a diligent inspection into all parts of the 
cause, that he will be able to know the disposition of 
mind in which they may be, as gentle or severe, pas- 
sionate or cool, inflexible or tractable, for deciding in 
his favor, — Lib, iii, cap. 9, 



58 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 



PART II 



DISPOSITION. 

What is disposition ? 

Disposition is the proper arrangement of the argu- 
ments or parts of an oration. 

How many parts are there in a regular formal ora- 
tion, and in what order should they stand ? 

Six : and generally stand in the following order : 
Exordium, Narration, Proposition, Confirmation, Re- 
futation, and Peroration.* 

What is the exordium ? 

The exordium, or introduction, is that part of an 
oration in which the speaker gives some intimation of 

* Hence the old verse : 

Exorsus, Narro, Seco, Firmo, Refuto, Peroro. 

Cicero expresses himself in a similar manner relative to the natural 
constituent parts of an oration : " Inventio in sex partes orationis con- 
sumitur, in Exordium, Narrationem, Divisionem, Confirmationem, Con- 
futationem, et Conclusionem." — Ad Heren., i. 3. 

Blair says: "There may be many excellent discourses in public, 
where several of these parts are altogether wanting: where the speaker, 
for instance, uses no introduction, but enters directly on his subject; 
where he has no occasion either to divide or explain ; but simply rea- 
sons on one side of the question, and then finishes." 



DISPOSITION. 59 

the subject to the audience, in order to render them 
attentive, benevolent, and docile.* 

What are the principal kinds of introductions ? 

The Exordium ah abrupto, Prineipium, and In- 
sinuatio. 

When is the Exordium ab abrupto used ? 

When the subject is such that the very mention of it 
naturally awakens some passionate" emotion ; or when 
the unexpected presence of some person or object in a 
popular assembly inflames the speaker, and makes him 
break forth with unusual warmth, f 

When is Principium used ? 

When the orator plainly and directly professes his 
aim in speaking. 

When is Insinuatio used ? 

When the orator, supposing the disposition of the 
audience to be prejudiced against him, artfully endea- 
vors to conciliate their favor, before he openly discovers 
the point he has in view.J 

Enumerate the rules necessary to be observed in the 
composition of an exordium. 

It should be such as the subject naturally suggests ;§ 

* Cicero and Quintilian mention three ends, to one or other of which 
an exordium should be subservient - "Reddere, auditores, benevolos, 
attentos, dociles." 

■f The appearance of Catiline in the senate renders the vehement 
beginning of Cicero's first oration against him very natural and proper : 
Quousque tandem, Catilina, abutere patientia nostra? 

J See Cicero's second oration against Rullus, and his seventh against 
Mark Antony. 

§ It must appear, as Cicero beautifully expresses it: " Effloruisse 
penitus ex ea causa quae turn agatur: To have sprung up, of its own 
accord, from the matter which is under consideration." — Cic. de Orat., 
lib. ii. 78. 



60 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

it should not be composed until the speaker has medi* 
tated in his own mind the substance of his discourse;* 
it should not anticipate any material part of the sub- 
ject; and it should possess clearness, modesty, and 
conciseness. 



FROM QUINTILIAN. 
Of the Exordium. 

What the Latins call exordium, the Greeks express 
by the more significant term of rf^ooi^'ov, which (from 
ot>»7, music or song, or ofytoj, a way) sufficiently denotes 
the part of the discourse that is pronounced before the 
subject is entered upon. For, whether they have bor- 

Sallust's Introductions, prefixed to his Catilinarian and Jugurthine 
wars, violate this rule. They might as well have been introductions to 
any other history, or to any other treatise whatever; and, therefore, 
though elegant in themselves, they must be considered as blemishes in 
the work, from want of due connection with it. 

* " When I have planned and digested all the materials of my dis- 
course, it is my custom to think, in the last place, of the introduction 
with which I am to begin. For, whenever I wished to consider the 
introduction first, nothing occurred to me but what was dry, trifling, 
trite, and common." — Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. 77. 

Quintilian says: "I cannot approve the course of those who think 
that the exordium should be the last thing written. For, as it is neces- 
sary to collect all the materials, and see how they ought to be disposed, 
before we begin to speak or write, so we ought to begin with what 
naturally occurs first. A painter or sculptor does not begin with the 
feet in a portrait or statue ; nor does any art consummate a work where 
it must begin. And what shall an orator do if he has not time enough 
to compose entirely his discourse 1 Will he not find himself under an 
illusion in adhering to so preposterous a custom ? He must, therefore, 
consider his matter in the order we have prescribed, and write it down 
in the order of delivery." — Lib. iii. cap. 9. 



DISPOSITION. 61 

rowed the term from music, as musicians make a pre- 
lude for obtaining silence and attention before they 
play their pieces; so orators, before they begin the 
cause, have specified, by the same appellation, what 
they say by way of preface, for procuring towards them 
a benevolent disposition in the judges. Or, whether, 
as the same Greeks call ofytov, a way, or introduction to 
a thing; so orators may have taken the word in the 
same sense, understanding by it that part which is 
necessary to acquire the favor of the judge before he 
receives any information of the cause. 

The reason for an exordium can be no other than to 
dispose the auditory to be favorable to us in the other 
parts of the discourse. This, as most authors agree, 
is accomplished by making them benevolent, attentive, 
and docile; not but that a due regard should be paid 
to these three particulars during the whole action; but 
in the exordium they are especially necessary; as by 
it we so far gain an ascendency over the mind of the 
judge, as to be able to proceed further. — Lib. iv. cap. i. 



FROM CICERO DE ORATORE. 
The Exordium. 

As to the commencement of a speech, it should 
always possess accuracy, acuteness, sentiment, and 
propriety of expression, and be especially adapted to 
the practice of the bar. For the first judgment, and, 
as it were, prejudice, which is formed in favor of a 
speech, arises from its setting out, which ought in- 
stantly to soothe and entice the hearer. Here I used 
6 



t)Z THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

to be surprised, not at those people who never applied to 
this business, but at Philip, a man of the first rank for elo- 
quence and learning, who generally, when he rises up to 
speak, seems to be at a loss how to begin; yet, at the same 
time, he says, that after the first attack, then he fights 
in earnest ; without reflecting that the very people from 
whom he borrowed this allusion, toss their first javelins 
with great coolness, with the design to make their ad- 
dress appear with greater grace, and to manage their 
strength. And there is no doubt but that pleading in 
its setting out often requires to be vigorous and spirited ; 
but if, among men who fight for their lives, a great 
many flourishes pass before they actually engage, 
which appear to be more for parade than in earnest, 
how much more is this to be expected in speaking, 
where strength and sweetness are required to go hand 
in hand ? There is no natural cause which pours itself 
out all at once, and vanishes by a sudden start: in like 
manner, nature has disguised with a gentle beginning, 
the progress of the most violent commotions. 

But your preamble is not to be sought from abroad, 
nor from any other place, but must be taken from the 
very essence of your cause. For this purpose, after 
you have felt and surveyed your whole cause, after you 
have found out and prepared all its topics, you must 
consider which of them you are to employ in your 
preamble. This is easily found out, for it must be 
taken from the allegations which are most fertile, 
either in proofs, or best adapted to those characters, 
into which I have said we ought frequently to deviate. 
It can, therefore, never fail of being important, when 
it is borrowed, in a manner, from the chief force of our 



DISPOSITION. bd 

pleading; and it will appear, that it is not only not 
common, and not applicable to other causes, but shoots, 
and, as it were, nourishes of its own accord, from the 
matter which is under consideration. 

Every preamble of a speech ought either to give an 
intimation of the whole matter, or to open and prepare 
the way to the merits of the cause, or to serve for 
ornament and dignity. But, as in the architecture of 
houses and temples, their porticos and entries have 
their proportions; so in pleading, the preamble of a 
speech ought to be in proportion to the importance of 
its subject, 

The beginning, therefore, should be so connected 
with the subsequent part of a speech as not to appear 
like the nourish of a musician, a thing detached; but 
like a proportionable member, of a piece with the whole 
body. For some speakers, after they have finished 
this premeditated part, make such a transition to the 
rest of their discourse, that they seem to demand that 
the audience should suit themselves to their fancies. 
An orator, then, should use a prelude, not as the Sam- 
nites do their spears, which they brandish before they 
engage, though they do not use them in the fight; for 
he ought to fight armed with the very sentiments he 
used in his prelude. — Oic. de Orat, lib. ii. cap. 78, 79, 
80. See also Cic. de Rhet., lib. i. cap. 6-11. Be In- 
vent., lib. i. cap. 20-26. 



What is the Narration ? 

The Narration, says Apollodorus, is a discourse in- 
forming the auditory of the matter in dispute. 



64 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

What are the qualities which critics chiefly require in 
Narration ? 

Clearness and distinctness, probability and concise- 
ness.* 

What are the principal difficulties which occur in 
Narration ? 

For the orator to adhere strictly to veracity, and at 
the same time to avoid saying anything which would 
be prejudicial to his cause; to place in the most striking 
light every circumstance which appears to his advan- 
tage ; and to soften and weaken such as make against 
him; render this part of the subject difficult in the 
execution. 



FROM QUINTILIAN. 
Narration. 

The judge being prepared in the manner above spe- 
cified, it is very natural, and it commonly is and ought 
to be done, to point out the affair upon which he is 
to pronounce judgment. This is the business of Nar- 
ration. 

Most authors are of opinion that a narration ought 
always to be made. This, however, is incorrect; for 
there are causes so short as to require rather to be 
proposed than recited. 

* " Narrations," says Aristotle, " should be plain, brief, and probable : 
'■trains xai #§«;£««;.' " — Rhet. ad Alex., cap. xxxi. 

Quintilian, treating of Narration, in the fourth book of his Institutes, 
says : " Most writers, especially those who follow the opinions of Iso- 
crates, will have it to be clear, short, and probable. The same division 
has my approbation." 



DISPOSITION. 65 

This is sometimes the case of the two contending 
parties; either that they have no exposition to make, 
or that, agreeing on the fact, they contest only the 
right; as in a cause before the Centum viri: "Whether 
the son or brother ought to be heir to him who died 
intestate?" Secondly, the narration may be sup- 
pressed, when even there is room for it; and this hap- 
pens when everything is already known to the judge, 
or an exact relation has been made by the orator who 
spoke first. 

Another question, but the subject of a more frequent 
discussion, is to know, "Whether the narration ought 
immediately to follow the exordium." They who think 
it should, seem to have some reason on their side; for, 
as the design of the exordium is to dispose the judges 
to hear us with all the good will, docility, and attention 
we desire ; and as arguments can have no effect without 
a previous knowledge of the cause, it naturally follows 
that they should have this knowledge as soon as it can 
be conveniently given. 

The condition of causes, however, makes some altera- 
tion in this respect; and if it did not, Cicero, in that 
elegant oration he left written for Milo, might seem to 
have misplaced his narration, by proposing three pre- 
vious questions. Either then it would be better to relate 
how Clodius lay in wait to attempt Milo's life, if it was 
not lawful to plead the cause of a criminal who had 
confessed himself guilty of manslaughter; or if Milo 
was prejudged by the senate as guilty; or if Pompey, 
who for certain reasons had blocked up all the avenues 
to the senate house with an armed force, had done so 
with the view of being supposed Milo's enemy. Cicero 

6* 



bb THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

likewise for Murena, but in a way different from this, 
does not begin the narration until he refutes the ad- 
versaries' objections. This method may be used to 
advantage as often as the crime is not only to be made 
void, but also charged upon another; for by annulling 
the imputation of guilt, the narration may afterwards 
be very seasonably entered upon, to insinuate that an- 
other is the guilty person ; and thus it is in the art of 
fencing, the care of putting one's self in a posture of 
defence precedes that of an attack. 

We may now proceed to the manner of Narration; 
which is of a thing done, or supposed to be done, and 
is conceived in a way proper to persuade; or it is, as 
Apollodorus defines it, a discourse informing the audi- 
tory of the matter in dispute. 

Most writers, especially those who follow the opin- 
ions of Isocrates, will have it to be clear, short, and 
probable. The same division has also my approbation; 
although Aristotle dissents, in one respect, from Isocra- 
tes, making a jest of the precept of brevity; as if nar- 
ration, necessarily long or short, admitted no medium. 
The disciples of Theodorus receive only the verisimili- 
tude, because it is not always useful to give a brief and 
clear account of a thing. The condition of each must, 
therefore, be carefully distinguished, in order to know 
how we may properly avail ourselves of them. — Lib. iv. 
cap. 2. 



DISPOSITION. 67 

FROM CICERO DE ORATORE. 
Narration. 

A narrative should be as striking as any other part 
of a discourse. This, however, will cost us more 
trouble, because it is more difficult to avoid obscurity 
in a narrative than in the beginning, in the proof, the 
exculpation, or the peroration. And the consequences 
of obscurity are much more dangerous here than else- 
where ; either because obscure expressions, in any other 
place, are attended with no other inconvenience than 
that they go for nothing; but obscurity in a narrative 
throws a cloud upon the whole discourse; or because, 
in case you should make use of an obscure expression 
in any other part, you have it in your power to explain 
it elsewhere; but a narrative can only stand in one 
place. The way, however, to render a narrative per- 
spicuous, is to convey it in plain expressions, in a regu- 
lar method as to time, and without any interruption of 
the circumstances. 

But when to introduce, or not to introduce a narra- 
tive, is a prudential consideration; for it is improper 
to give a detail of a matter that is notorious and self- 
evident; nor after our opponent has done it, unless 
with a view to refute him. And if at any time we are 
engaged in a narrative, we are to take care not to insist 
with too much vehemence upon any suspicious criminal 
circumstances that may make against us, and we are 
to extenuate whatever may ; otherwise we may fall into 
the error of hurting our own cause, which Crassus says 
never happens except from design, and not ignorance; 



68 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

for the material part of the whole cause depends upon 
our laying down the subject either cautiously or in- 
cautiously; because the narrative is the foundation of 
the whole of the remaining speech. — Lib. ii. cap. 80, 
81. See also Cic, Mhet., lib. i. cap. 12-16. De Invent., 
lib. i. cap. 27-30. 



What is Proposition ? 

The Proposition is a distinct and express manner of 
laying down the subject upon which the speaker de- 
signs to treat.* 



FROM QUINTILIAN. 
Proposition. 

Some subjoin Proposition to Narration, as a part of 
the judicial matter, which opinion we have already 
answered. Every proposition seems to me the begin- 
ning of a proof, which usually takes place, not only in 
pointing out the principal question, but sometimes also 
in every argument. But we now speak of the first. 

It is not always necessary to use it, as it sometimes 
sufficiently appears without a proposition what the pur- 
port of the question is ; especially if the narration ends 

* Orators sometimes lay down the subject of their discourse in one 
general proposition. Thus Cicero, in his speech to the senate, the day- 
after Csesar was assassinated, says : " This being the state of our affairs, 
I think it necessary that we should lay aside all the discord and enmity 
which have arisen among us, and return again to our former peace and 
unanimity." He then proceeds to offer his reasons for this advice with- 
out any division. 



DISPOSITION. 69 

where the question begins, or is followed by a short 
recapitulation, as it commonly happens in the proofs : 
"This affair was transacted as I told you, judges; he 
who laid the snare perished in it ; violence was repelled 
by violence, or rather valor triumphed over insolence."* 

But the proposition is sometimes of considerable ad- 
vantage, particularly when the fact cannot be denied, 
and is only defensible by a question of right ; as in the 
case of him who stole the money of a private person 
out of a temple, the only question to which the judge 
should attend is this: "Does he stand guilty of sacri- 
lege ?" The same may be said of obscure and compli- 
cated causes, or such as are embarrassed by a number 
of incidents. 

Propositions are simple and complex. This happens 
various ways. Thus, when many crimes are alleged 
together, as when Socrates was accused of corrupting 
the Athenian youth, and introducing new superstitions. 
And one fact is deduced from, or corroborated by 
many, as iEschines, accused of ill conduct in his em- 
bassy, is charged with falsehood; with doing nothing 
according to his instructions; with delaying beyond 
the time fixed for his return ; and with taking bribes. 
By annexing each of these propositions to their re- 
spective proofs they will constitute many ; but if united 
together, it will be the business of the division of the 
pleading to make them appear in their proper light. — 
Lib. iv. cap. 4. 



When a formal distribution of an oration into parts 
is requisite, what is it called ? 
Partition, or Division. 

* Cic. pro Mil. 



70 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

What is Division ? 

Division, says Quintilian, is an enumeration of our 
own propositions, or those of our opponent, or both 
together, disposed in order.* 

What are the most material rules to be observed in 
Partition, or Division ? 

The several parts into which the subject is divided 
should be really distinct from one another; the subject 
should be divided into those parts into which it is most 
easily and naturally resolved; the several members of 
a division ought to exhaust the subject; the terms in 
which partitions are expressed should be as concise as 
possible; and an unnecessary multiplication of heads 
should be avoided, f 



FROM QUINTILIAN. 
Of Division.% 

Division is an enumeration of our own propositions, 
or those of our opponent, or both together, disposed in 
order. 

Some are of opinion that division should be always 

* Cicero, in defence of Muraena, says: "I perceive the accusation 
consists of three parts : the first respects the conduct of his life ; the 
second his dignity ; and the third contains a charge of bribery.'' 

f Quintilian says: "But if division should seem requisite, I am not 
inclined to assent to the notion of those who would not have it extend 
to more than three heads. Indeed, when the partitions are too many, 
they escape the judge's memory and distract his attention; but a cause 
is not to be scrupulously tied down to this number, as it may require 
more." 

Cicero, however, never divided any of his orations into more than 
three heads: and Aristotle, in his Rhet. ad Alex., cap. xxxii., says: we 
may divide them into three parts: " Ta.%oy.zv Js avraq ha, r^vv." 

J See Cic. de Invent., lib. i. 



DISPOSITION. 71 

used; as the cause will appear more clear, and the 
judge more attentive and docile when he knows of 
what we speak, and of what we intend afterwards to 
speak. Others consider this course attended with dan- 
ger to the orator, either by sometimes forgetting what 
he had promised, or by something else occurring to the 
judge or auditor of which he did not think in the divi- 
sion. I cannot well imagine how this may happen, 
unless in regard to one who may be either destitute of 
sense, or rash enough to plead without preparation. In 
any other respect, nothing can set a subject in so ob- 
vious a light as a just division. It is a means to which 
we are directed by the guidance of nature; because, 
not losing sight of the heads on which we speak is of 
the greatest assistance to memory. 

But if division should seem requisite, I am not in- 
clined to assent to the opinion of those who would not 
have it extend to more than three points. Indeed, 
when the partitions are too many they escape the 
judge's memory and distract his attention; but a cause 
is not to be scrupulously tied down to this number, as 
it may require more. 

There are better reasons for not always using divi- 
sion; and the principal one is, that most things are 
better received, when they have the appearance of 
extemporaneous invention, and do not seem to savor 
of the closet, but to arise in the pleading from the 
nature of the subject itself. 

Add to this, that the judge is to be led into pleasing 
deceptions, and amused by a variety of stratagems, to 
keep him from discovering our designs. There are 
sometimes harsh propositions, which, if the judge 



72 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

should foresee, he will take the alarm, like a patient 
who, being to undergo an operation, dreads the sur- 
geon's incision knife before he feels it; whereas, if, by 
not previously proposing anything you give him no 
time to reflect with himself, your discourse will take 
full possession of him, and effect more than can be well 
expected. 

Besides, will not many things light and weak of 
themselves become considerable when assembled into a 
body? They are, therefore, rather to be mustered to- 
gether, and we must fight as by a sally of main force; 
yet this expedient should be seldom adopted, and then 
from necessity, and when reason in a great degree 
compels us to act against reason. 

But, although division may not be always necessary, 
and at some times superfluous, yet when appropriately 
adopted, it gives light and beauty to a discourse. This 
it accomplishes, not only by adding more perspicuity to 
what is said, things by it being drawn out of their con- 
fusion, and placed conspicuously before the judges; 
but also by refreshing the audience with a view of each 
part circumscribed within its bounds. In like manner, 
mile-stones ease, in some measure, the fatigue of tra- 
velers ; because they experience pleasure in knowing the 
extent of the labor they have undergone ; and to know 
what remains encourages them to persevere ; as nothing 
can seem necessarily long when there is a certainty of 
coming to the end. Quintus Hortensius acquired de- 
servedly great praise for his exactness in division, 
although his way of computing the points on his fin- 
gers was sometimes humorously ridiculed by Cicero. 
There is, however, a certain medium to be observed, 



DISPOSITION. 73 

by avoiding a division too precise, which, indeed, les- 
sens the dignity of the discourse, and instead of dis- 
tinguishing the parts makes them not members, but a 
collection of scraps. 

Every division, therefore, when it may be employed 
to advantage, ought to be, in the first place, clear and 
intelligible; for what is worse than being obscure in a 
thing, the use of which is for guarding against ob- 
scurity in other things ? In the second place, it should 
be short, and not encumbered with any superfluous 
words, because we do not enter upon the subject mat- 
ter, but only to point it out. 

It will be proper also to consider whether it be de- 
fective or redundant. It is commonly redundant, when 
we either divide into the species, the genus being suf- 
ficient; or subject the species to the genus: as, "I 
shall speak of virtue, justice, temperance;" whereas, 
justice and temperance are species of virtue. 

The most natural division proposes what is certain 
and what is doubtful in a cause. The first head takes 
in our concessions, and those of the adverse party. 
The second the reasons for and against us. 

Upon the whole, there cannot be a greater fault than 
the want of a proper execution of the proposed order. 
— Lib. iv. cap. 5. 



What is the Confirmation ? 

The Confirmation, says Cicero, is that part of a 
discourse which contains the arguments which are 
7 



74 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

necessary, in order to strengthen and illustrate the 
subject.* 

How many different methods may be used in the 
Confirmation, or Argumentative part of an oration ? 

Two; the Analytic and Synthetic. 

What is the Analytic method ? 

The Analytic is when the speaker conceals his inten- 
tion concerning the point he is to prove, until he has 
gradually brought his hearers to the designed conclu- 
sion. They are led on step by step from one known 
truth to another, till the conclusion be stolen upon 
them, as the natural consequence of a chain of propo- 
sitions, f 

What is the Synthetic method ? 

The Synthetic method of reasoning, which is most 
generally used, and which is best adapted to the train 
of popular speaking, is when the point to be proved is 
fairly laid down, and one argument after another is 

* Aristotle says that in our confirmation " we must strengthen what 
went before by credible, just, and proper proofs." 

■j" As, when one intending to prove the being of a God, sets out with 
observing, that everything we see in the world has had a beginning; 
that whatever has had a beginning must have had a prior cause; that 
in productions, art shown in the effect, necessarily infers design in the 
cause; and proceeds, leading you on from one cause to another, till you 
arrive at one supreme first cause, from whom is derived all the order 
and design visible in his works. 

Plato was the author of the Analytic art, which is essentially the 
same with the Socratic method by which that philosopher silenced the 
sophists of his age. But there are few subjects which will admit this 
method, and not many occasions on which it is proper to be employed. 
Besides, it is not so well adapted to continued discourses, as to those 
which are interlocutory ; and therefore we find it oftenest in the Socratic 
Dialogues of Plato and Xenophon. 



DISPOSITION. 75 

made to bear upon it, till the hearers are fully con- 
vinced. 

What is the most proper method of arranging the 
arguments of a discourse ? 

Rhetoricians generally advise to place the weakest in 
the middle, and the strongest partly in the beginning, 
to preoccupy the hearers early, and partly at the end, 
in order to make a successful impression on the audi- 
ence.* i 

What is the Refutation ? 

The Refutation, or Confutation, is an answer to our 
opponent's arguments; either by contradicting them, 
or showing some mistake in the reasoning, or their 
invalidity when granted, f 

* Quintilian, in the fifth book of his Institutes, says: "It has also 
been a matter of dispute, whether the strongest proofs should be placed 
in the beginning, to make an immediate impression on their minds; or 
at the end, to make the impression continue with them; or to distribute' 
them, partly in the beginning, and partly at the end, placing the weaker, 
in the middle, according to the order of battle set forth in Homer, (see 
Homer's II , book iv., v. 297;) or lastly, to begin with the weakest, and 
proceed gradually to the strongest. For my part, I think this should 
depend on the nature and exigencies of the cause ; yet with this re- 
serve, that from powerful the discourse might not dwindle into nugatory 
and frivolous arguments." 

Ergo ut in oratore optimus quisque, sic et in oratione, firmissimum 
quodque sit primum: durn illud tamen in utroque teneatur, ut ea, quae 
excellant, serventur etiam ad perorandum: si quae erunt mediocria (nam 
vitiosis nusquam esse oportet locum) in mediam. turbam, atque in gre- 
gem conjiciantur. — Cic. de Or at., lib. ii. 77. 

f In the Refutation, says Aristotle, "It is necessary to extenuate your 
adversaries' arguments and amplify your own: ' £« ra fxtv ekeivwv y.M£o- 
iroiuv, to. h o-av-ru at/£eiv.' " — Ad, Alex., cap. xxxiv. 



76 THE ART OP RHETORIC. 

FROM QUINTILIAN. 
Refutation. 

The Refutation has two different objects in view, 
either as it regards defence, which entirely consists in 
refuting; or answering objections, which should be 
equally cleared upon both sides. 

It is not, however, without reason, as Cicero often 
bears witness, that it has always been thought more 
difficult to defend than to accuse. The accusation is 
much more simple. There is only one way of pro- 
posing, but there are several ways of answering. The 
accuser considers it sufficient if what he advances be 
true; whereas the advocate for the accused must deny 
the charge, or maintain it as lawful; must make it 
something else, or excuse, or deprecate punishment; 
must mitigate, lessen, or show that it is not according 
to the due form of law; or he must despise, or turn it 
into ridicule. The accuser, besides, brings from home 
many particulars upon which he has well studied and 
reflected, which the advocate must answer, and fre- 
quently what he little expected. The accuser produces 
witnesses, and the advocate must invalidate the purport 
of their depositions. Orators, therefore, of moderate 
abilities have been found sufficient as accusers, but the 
most eloquent only have been found capable of con- 
ducting a defence. To declare, however, my real sen- 
timents of this matter, I may say, that accusation is 
so much easier than defence, as it is easier to make 
than cure wounds. 



DISPOSITION. 77 

In order to make a good defence, it will be extremely 
necessary to attend to the adversary's charge, and his 
manner of executing it. The first consideration, there- 
fore, should be, whether that to which we must answer 
belongs or is foreign to the cause. 

If it belongs to the cause, it must either be denied, 
or defended, or proved defective in form of law. Be- 
sides these three, there is no other resource to get 
clear of a process. 

We have already shown that there are two ways of 
denying; either that the thing has not been done, or 
was not done in that manner. Now whatever is not 
defensible, nor defective in form, must be denied; not 
only when, by defining it, we may change its nature, 
but even when no other source remains but denial. If 
witnesses are produced, much may be alleged against 
them; if a written instrument, a forgery may be dis- 
covered by comparing the difference of the handwriting. 
In fine, nothing is worse than confession. 

When there is no room left for defending and deny- 
ing, the last point that remains to be controverted in 
an action is, whether it has been brought in due form 
of law? 

If the adversary's allegation is foreign to the cause, 
and yet has some affinity to it, I should rather say, 
that it has nothing in common with the question, or so 
trifling in its consequence, that there is no occasion for 
spending time about it. Forgetfulness may also be 
pretended by the advocate, which will be very pardon- 
able in this respect, from the earnest desire that may 
appear in him for serving his party. 

We should next consider whether it be more advisa- 
7* 



78 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

ble to refute the accuser's proofs altogether, or one 
after another. Many are attacked together, if either 
so weak that all may be made to yield to the same 
effort, or so annoying that it would be inconvenient to 
encounter them one by one. So circumstanced, we 
must charge the enemy by one general shock, and 
fight, as it were, with all our forces mustered in the 
front of battle. Should we, however, find a difficulty 
in overpowering the adversary's arguments, we may, at 
least, compare ours with his, in order to show that the 
advantage, if any, lies on our side. 

The proofs which are strong, collected in a body, 
must be refuted separately: "You were his heir, you 
were poor and harassed, sued for large sums by your 
creditors, you disobliged your kinsman, and you know 
that he designed to alter his will." These proofs, thus 
urged together, press hard; but if you take them 
singly, the flame that was strong from its heaped up 
quantity of fuel, will soon appear languid by dispers- 
ing the combustibles. In like manner, great and deep 
rivers, branched out into streams, become everywhere 
fordable. 

There is a fault of appearing over-anxious, and too 
much embarrassed about every trifling difficulty which 
occurs. It makes the judge distrust the cause, and 
frequently the things which, when said extemporane- 
ously, might remove all doubt, become suspected by 
delays and preparatory precautions ; as it would appear 
that recourse was only had to them for want of some- 
thing more substantial. Let, therefore, the orator 
show himself confident, and let him always speak as if 
he entertained the best opinion of his cause. This 



DISPOSITION. 79 

was an excellency in Cicero, as in all other respects. 
Everything he advances is seconded by so great an 
air of security and authority, that it has the force of 
a proof, and leaves no room to doubt his veracity. 

Now he who knows the stronghold of the adverse 
party and his own, will easily judge what he has to 
refute and what to insist upon. In no other part the 
order to be observed will be attended with less trouble ; 
for if we are plaintiffs, our own proofs are first to be 
established, and next the adversary's refuted. If we 
are defendants, we are to begin with refuting. But it 
should be a principal consideration with both parties to 
know the main point and force of the argument; as it 
commonly happens that many things are said in causes, 
and few judged. — Lib. v, cap. 13. 



FROM CICERO DE ORATORE. 

You are next to state the case, in doing which you 
are to have in view the point in dispute. You are 
then to form the strongest arguments you can to sup- 
port your side of the question, both by invalidating 
the reasoning of your antagonist, and establishing your 
own. For the argumentative part upon proofs in a 
speech is of a single and peculiar nature, yet, at the 
same time it requires both confirmation and confuta- 
tion. But, as you cannot confute your antagonist 
without establishing your own allegations, nor can you 
establish your own without confuting his, these, there- 
fore, are joined both in their nature and utility. — Lib. 
ii. cap. 81. 



80 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Of what does the Peroration consist ? 

The Peroration, or Conclusion, consists of a reca- 
pitulation of the strongest arguments concentrated into 
one view,* and an address to the passions, f 

* Quintilian says, in the sixth book, chapter i. ; of his Institutes: "The 
Peroration, called by some the Completion, by others the Conclusion of 
a discourse, is of two sorts, and regards either the matter discussed in 
it, or the moving of the passions. 

"The repetition of the matter, and its collection together, which is 
called by the Greeks (avaxeqa'KaiaxTis) Recapitulation, and by some of 
the Latins Enumeration, serves for refreshing the judge's memory, for 
placing the whole cause in one direct point of view, and for enforcing 
many proofs in a body, which, separate, made less impression." 

f ' ; But it should not be imagined, as some have thought, that all this 
excitement of the passions, all these sentimental emotions, ought to be 
confined to the Exordium and Peroration. In them, indeed, they are 
most frequent, yet other parts admit them also, but in a shorter space, 
as their greatest stress should be reserved for the end. For here all 
the springs of eloquence are to be opened. It is here we secure the 
minds of the audience, if what went before was w r ell executed. Now, 
having passed the rocks and shallows, we may expand all our sails for 
being swelled with a favorable gale. And as amplification makes a 
great part of the peroration, we may then embellish our style with the 
most pompous expressions and elevated thoughts." — Quint. Inst., lib. vi. 
cap. i. 

Cicero, in his de Oratore, book ii., chapter 81, says: "But all speeches 
are generally concluded with amplifications, in order either to exaspe- 
rate or mollify the judge; and all the abilities of an orator, as in the 
Exordium, so more especially in the Conclusion of the speech, ave to 
be exerted in giving the strongest impulse to the feelings of the judges 
in our favor." 



DISPOSITION. 81 

FROM QUINTILIAN. 

The Peroration.* 

The Peroration, called by some the Completion, by 
others the Conclusion, of a discourse, is of two sorts; 
and regards either the matter discussed, or the moving 
of the passions. 

The repetition of the matter, which is called by the 
Greeks recapitulation (di/a*f$a?uuwcrts), and by some of 
the Latins enumeration, serves for refreshing the 
judge's memory, for placing the whole cause in one 
direct point of view, and for enforcing in a body many 
proofs, which, separately, made less impression. This 
repetition should be very short, and the Greek term 
adequately denotes that we ought to run over only the 
principal heads ; for, should we be tedious, it will not 
be an enumeration we make, but, as it were, a second 
discourse. The particulars, however, which may seem 
to require this enumeration, ought to be pronounced 
with some emphatical weight, and enlivened with appo- 
site thoughts, and diversified with figures; otherwise 
nothing will be so disagreeable as a mere cursory repe- 
tition, which appears to show a diffidence of the judge's 
memory. A multiplicity of figurative expressions are 
adapted for this purpose: thus Cicero, when addressing 
Verres, says: "Even if your father was to be judge in 
the case, what should he say on producing proof of 
these allegations?" and then he proceeds to enumerate 
them. Or when, in another place, against the same, 

* See Cic. de Invent., lib. i. 



82 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

by invoking the gods to bear witness, lie makes an 
enumeration of all their temples which had been pil- 
laged by the Pretor. 

This appears to be the only sort of peroration which 
was admissible by most of the Athenians, and by almost 
all the philosophers who left anything written on the 
art of oratory. The Athenians, I suppose, were of 
that opinion, because it was customary at Athens to 
silence, by the public crier, any orator who should 
attempt to move the passions. I am less surprised at 
the philosophers, who considered every perturbation of 
the mind as vicious ; nor did it seem to them compatible 
with sound morality to divert the judge from truth; nor 
consistent with the idea of an honorable man to have 
recourse to any sinister stratagem. Moving the pas- 
sions, however, will be acknowledged necessary when 
truth and justice cannot be otherwise obtained, and 
when a public good is concerned in the decision of the 
matter. 

All agree that a recapitulation may be also em- 
ployed to advantage in other parts of the pleading, if 
the cause is complicated, and requires many arguments 
to defend it; and, on the other hand, many causes are 
so short and simple as to have no occasion in any part 
of them for a recapitulation. This part of the perora- 
tion is equally common to the accuser, and to the de- 
fendant's advocate. 

The favor of the judges towards us, is more rarely 
solicited in the beginning, it being then sufficient to 
find admittance; as the whole discourse remains for 
making further impressions. But in the peroration, 
we must strive to make the judge assume that dispo- 



DISPOSITION. 83 

sition of mind it would be necessary for us that he 
should retain when he conies to pass judgment. When 
the peroration is finished we can say no more, neither 
is anything reserved for another place. It is, there- 
fore, common to the contending parties to conciliate to 
themselves the judge; to make him unfavorable to the 
adversary; to raise and allay occasionally his passions; 
and to say those things which would make the greatest 
impression, on themselves if they sat as judges. 

But it must not be imagined, as some have thought, 
that all this excitement of the passions, all these senti- 
mental emotions, should be confined to the exordium 
and peroration. In these they are most frequent, 
although other parts admit them likewise, but in 
shorter compass, as their greatest force should be re- 
served for the end. For here, if anywhere, the orator 
may be allowed to open all the fountains of eloquence. 
If we have executed all other parts to advantage, here 
we take possession of the minds of the judges, and, 
having escaped all rocks and shelves, may expand all 
our sails for being swelled with a favorable gale ; and 
as amplification makes a great part of the peroration, 
we may then raise and embellish our style with the 
choicest expressions and brightest thoughts. And, in- 
deed, the conclusion of a speech should bear some 
resemblance to that of tragedy and comedy, when the 
actor courts the spectators' applause. In other parts, 
the passions may be touched, as they naturally rise 
out of the subject, and no horrible or miserable thing 
should be exposed without accompanying it with a suit- 
able sentiment. When the debate may be on the quality 
of a thing, it is properly subjoined to the proofs of 



84 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

each matter. When we plead a cause involved or com- 
plicated with a variety of circumstances, then it will 
be necessary to use, as it were, many perorations, as 
Cicero has done against Verres. There he shed tears 
for Philodamus, for the masters of ships, for the cruci- 
fied Roman citizens, and for many others. — Lib. vi. 
cap. 1. 



FROM CICERO DE ORATORE. 
Peroration. 

But all speeches are generally wound up by exagge- 
ration, in order either to exasperate or mollify the 
judges; and all the abilities of an orator, as in the 
preamble, so more especially in the conclusion of the 
speech, are to be applied in giving the strongest emo- 
tions to the passions of the judges in our own favor. — 
Lib. ii. cap. 81. 



EXEMPLIFICATIONS OF THE PRECEDING 
RULES. 



Satan's Speech to his rebel host. 

(a) myriads of immortal spirits ! powers 

Matchless but with the Almighty! and that strife 
Was not inglorious, though th' event was dire, 

(a) Exordium. 



DISPOSITION. 85 

As this place testifies, and this dire change, 

Hateful to utter : (a) But what power of mind, 

Foreseeing or presaging, from the depth 

Of knowledge past or present, could have fear'd 

How such united force of Gods, how such 

As stood like these, could ever know repulse ? 

For who can yet believe, though after loss, 

That ail these puissant legions, whose exile 

Hath emptied Heav'n, shall fail to reascend, 

Self-rais'd, and repossess their native seat ? 

For me, be witness all the host of Heaven, 

If counsels different, or dangers shunn'd 

By me, have lost our hopes. But he, who reigns 

Monarch in Heav'n, till then as one secure 

Sat on his throne, upheld by old repute, 

Consent or custom, and his regal state 

Put forth at full, but still his strength conceal' d, 

Which tempted our attempt, and wrought our fall. 

Henceforth his might we know, and know our own, 

So as not either to provoke, or dread 

New war, provoked: (b) Our better part remains: 

To work in close design, by fraud or guile, 

What force effected not: that he no less 

At length from us may find, who overcomes 

By force, hath overcome but half his foe. 

Space may produce new worlds ; (c) whereof so rife 

There went a fame in Heav'n that he ere long 

Intended to create, and therein plant 

A generation, whom his choice regard 

Should favor equal to the sons of Heav'n: 

Thither, if but to pry, shall be, perhaps, 

(a) Narration. (6) Proposition. (c) Confirmation. 



86 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Our first eruption, thither or elsewhere: 
(a) For this infernal pit shall never hold 
Celestial spirits in bondage, nor th' abyss 
Long under darkness cover, (b) But these thoughts 
Full counsel must mature : peace is despair'd, 
For who can think submission? War, then, war, 
Open or understood, must be resolv'd. 

Milt. Par. Lost, book i. 622. 



St. PauVs eloquent Defence before King Agrippa, and 
Festus the Roman Governor in Judea. 

Acts xxvi. 

(c) I think myself happy, King Agrippa, because I 
shall answer for myself this day before thee, touching 
all the things whereof I am accused of the Jews; 
especially, because I know thee to be expert in all 
customs and questions which are among the Jews : 
wherefore I beseech thee to hear me patiently. 

(d) My manner of life from my youth, which was at 
the first among mine own nation at Jerusalem, know all 
the Jews, who knew me from the beginning, (if they 
would testify,) that, after the straitest sect of our re- 
ligion, I lived a Pharisee: and now I stand and am 
judged for the hope of the promise made of God unto 
our fathers; unto which promise our twelve tribes, in- 
stantly serving God day and night, hope to come ; for 
which hope's sake, King Agrippa, I am accused of the 
Jews. 

(a) Refutation. (b) Peroration. (c) Exordium. (d) Narration. 



DISPOSITION. 8T 

(a) Why should it be thought a thing incredible with 
you that God should raise the dead ? 

(b) I verily thought with myself, that I ought to do 
many things contrary to the name of Jesus of Naza- 
reth. Which thing I also did in Jerusalem : and many 
of the saints did I shut up in prison, having received 
authority from the chief priests; and when they were 
put to death I gave my voice against them: and I 
punished them oft in every synagogue, and compelled 
them to blaspheme ; and, being exceedingly mad against 
them, I persecuted them even to strange cities. Where- 
upon, as I went to Damascus with authority and com- 
mission from the chief priests, at midday, king ! I 
saw in the way a light from heaven, above the bright- 
ness of the sun, shining around about me and them 
who journeyed with me. And, when we were all fallen 
to the earth, I heard a voice speaking to me, and say- 
ing in the Hebrew tongue, Saul, Saul, why persecutest 
thou me ? It is hard for thee to kick against the 
pricks. — And I said, who art thou, Lord ! and he said, 
I am Jesus, whom thou persecutest. But rise, and 
stand upon thy feet; for I have appeared unto thee, 
for this purpose; to make thee a minister and a wit- 
ness, both of these things which thou hast seen, and of 
those things in the which I will appear unto thee : 
Delivering thee from the people, and from the Gen- 
tiles, unto whom now I send thee; to open their eyes, 
and to turn them from darkness to light, and from the 
power of Satan unto God; that they may receive for- 
giveness of sins, and inheritance among them who are 
sanctified by faith that is in me. Whereupon, king 

(a) Proposition {,&) Confirmation 



88 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Agrippa, I was not disobedient to the heavenly vision ; 
but showed first unto them of Damascus, and at Jeru- 
salem, and throughout all the coasts of Judea, and then 
to the Gentiles, that they should repent and turn to 
God, and do works meet for repentance. 

(a) For these causes the Jews caught me in the 
temple, and went about to kill me. Having therefore 
obtained help of God, I continue unto this day, wit- 
nessing both to small and great; saying none other 
things than those which the prophets and Moses did 
say should come: "That Christ should suffer; and that 
he should be the first that should rise from the dead; 
and should show light unto the people and to the Gen- 
tiles." 

(b) I am not mad, most noble Festus, but speak forth 
the words of truth and soberness : for the king knoweth 
of these things before whom also I speak freely; for I 
am persuaded, that none of these things are hidden 
from him: for this thing was not done in a corner. 
King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets? I know 
that thou believest. I would to God, that not only 
thou, but also all that hear me this day, were both 
almost, and altogether such as I am, except these 
bonds, 



Oratio Catilince. 

(o) Ni virtus fidesque vestra spectata mihi forent, 
nequicquam opportuna res cecidisset; spes magna, do- 
minatio in manibus frustra fuissent: neque ego per 

(a) Refutation. (b) Peroration. (c) Exordium. 



DISPOSITION. 89 

ignaviam, aut vana ingenia, incerta pro certis capta- 
rem. Sed quia multis et magnis tempestatibus vos 
cognovi fortes fidosque mihi; eo animus ausus maxi- 
mum atque pulcherrimum facinus incipere: simul quia 
vobis, eadem mihi, bona malaque intellexi; nam idem 
velle atque nolle, ea demum firma amicitia est. 

(a) Sed ego, quae mente agitavi, omnes jam antea 
diversi audistis caeterum mihi in dies magis animus ac- 
cenditur, cum considero, quae conditio vitse futura sit 
nisi nosmet ipsi vindicamus in libertatem. Nam post- 
quam respublica in paucorum jus atque ditionem con- 
cessit; semper illis reges, tetrarchse vectigales esse; 
populi, nationes stipendia pendere; cseteri omnes stre- 
nui, boni, nobiles atque ignobiles, fuimus vulgus, sine 
gratia, sine auctoritate, his obnoxii, quibus, si respub- 
lica valerat, formidini essemus. Itaque omnis gratia, 
potentia, honos, divitise apud illos sunt, aut ubi illi 
volunt: nobis reliquerunt, pericula, judicia, egesatem. 
Quae quousque tandem patiemini, fortissimi viri! 

(b) Nonne emori per virtutem prsestat, quam vitam 
miseram atque inhonestam, ubi aliense superbise ludibrio 
fueris, per dedecus amittere ? verum enimvero proh 
Deum atque hominum fidem ! Victoria in manu nobis 
est. 

(c) Yiget setas, animus valet ; contra illis, annis atque 
divitiis omnia consenuerunt : tantummodo incepto opus 
est; csetera res expediet. 

(d) Etenim quis mortalium, cui virile ingenium, tole- 
rare potest, illis divitias superare, quas profundant in 
extruendo mari, et montibus cosequandis; nobis rem 
familiarem etiam ad necessaria deesse ? Illos binas 

(a) Narratio. (6) Propositio. (c) Confirmatio. (d) Refutatio. 

8* 



90 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

aut amplius domos continuare; nobis larem familiarem 
nusquani ullum esse ? Cum tabulas, signa, toreumata 
enmnt; nova diruunt, alia aedificant; postremo, omni- 
bus modis pecuniam trakunt, vexant; tamen summa 
lubidine divitias suas vincere nequeunt ? At nobis est 
domi inopia, foris ses alienum; mala res spes multo 
asperior; denique, quid reliqui kabemus, praeter inise- 
ram animam ? 

(a) Quin igitur expurgiscimini ? En ilia, ilia, quam 
saepe optastis, libertas ! Praeterea, divitise, decus, glo- 
ria, in oculis sita sunt ! fortuna ea omnia victoribus 
prsemia posuit. — Res, pericula, tempus, egestas, belli 
spolia magnifica, magis quam oratio mea, vos kortentur. 
Vel imperatore, vel milite, me utimini; neque animus, 
neque corpus, a vobis aberit. Haec ipsa, ut spero, vobis 
cum una consul agam nisi forte animus fallit, et vos 
servire magis, quam imperare parati estis. 

Sal Bell Catil 



Catiline s Oration in English, 

(b) Had I not sufficient proofs of your courage and 
fidelity, in vain kad tkis favorable opportunity offered 
itself; great kopes and dominion kad been in our bands 
to no purpose: nor would I grasp at uncertainty for 
certainty, by tke kelp of men of inactive and unsteady 
dispositions. But because I kave found you valiant 
and faitkful to me upon many and important occasions, 
my mind kas dared to undertake one of tke greatest and 
noblest enterprises : as also, because I am persuaded tkat 

(a) Peroratio. (6) Exordium. 



DISPOSITION. 91 

your interest must be affected by what is advantageous 
or injurious to me; for a similitude of desires and aver- 
sions is the only lasting foundation of friendship. 

(a) You have all separately heard already what I 
have projected in my mind: but my desire is daily 
more inflamed, when I consider, what will probably be 
our condition of life, if we assert not our own liberty. 
For since the commonwealth has fallen to the manage- 
ment and disposal of a few, kings and tetrarchs have 
always been subject to them; states and nations have 
paid them tribute: the rest of us, the brave, the good, 
the noble and the ignoble, have all been as the vilest of 
the vulgar, without interest, without authority, exposed 
to those to whom we should be a terror, if the adminis- 
tration were in its proper state. Hence, all interest, 
power, honor, and riches, have been engrossed by them, 
or disposed of at their pleasure: to us they have left 
dangers, repulses, impeachments, and poverty. Which 
indignities, how long will you, the bravest of men, 
tamely endure ? 

(b) Is it not better to die bravely, than, by disgrace 
to lose a miserable and inglorious life, after you have 
been the sport of other men's insolence ? But, by the 
faith of gods and men, we have certain victory in our 
hands ! 

(o) We have youth, strength, and courage on our 
side: on the contrary, everything with them is im- 
paired by years and luxury; there is need only of a 
beginning: the undertaking itself will accomplish all 
the rest. 

(d) And what mortal, who has the spirit of a man, 

,(a.) Narration. (6) Proposition. (c) Confirmation. (d) Refutation. 



92 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

can bear that they should have riches in abundance, to 
lavish in building in the sea, and in leveling mountains ; 
and that we should want even a competency for the 
necessaries of life ? That they should have numbers of 
houses together: we not so much as a household-god 
left us? 

While they purchase paintings, statues, embossed 
figures ; pull . down their new buildings, and erect 
others more stately ; in a word, by all methods, raise 
and consume their money ; yet, with their utmost ex- 
travagance, they cannot exhaust their riches. But we 
have poverty at home, and debts abroad; our circum- 
stances bad, our expectations much more desperate. 
To conclude : — What have we left us, except a life of 
misery ? 

(a) Then why do you not awake ? Behold that li- 
berty! that glorious liberty you have often wished 
for ! Moreover, wealth, honor and glory are placed in 
your view! Fortune has proposed all rewards to the 
conquerors. May the occasion, opportunity, dangers, 
distresses, and the magnificent spoils of war excite you 
more than my oration. Use me, either as your general 
or fellow-soldier. My heart and hand shall be insepa- 
rably with you. I hope to be able to assist you in the 
enterprise, with the consular power, unless, perhaps, 
my mind deceives me, and you be disposed rather to be 
slaves than to command. 

(a) Peroration. 



DISPOSITION. 93 



WHAT IS A THEME ? 

A Theme is a short and formal treatise on a given 
subject.* 

Into how many parts is it divided ? 

Seven: Proposition, Keason, Confirmation, Simile, 
Example, Testimony, and Conclusion. 

Cfnome tractata brevissime. 
Festina lente. 

1. Propositio. 
Damnosa est in gerendis rebus nimia festinatio. 

2. Ratio. 
Quia nihil consilio tarn inimicum est quam temeraria 
negotii prsecipitatio. 

3. Confirmatio. 
Sine consilio autem, quicquid sit, recte fieri non 
potest. 

* Themata vel celebres auctorum sententiae quae in scholis ad exer- 
cenda puerorum ingenia proponi solent, duo fere habent genera ; vel 
enim Chreia sunt vel Gnoma. Gnome dicitur quse prsecipitur aliquid 
vel agendum vel omittendum, fiigiendumve : ut, 

Vive tibi, quantumque potes prcelustria vita % 

vel, 

Ne quid nimis : 

Chreia vero est qusedam nuda rei notitia, sed ea etiam utilis vitas; 
quae sine praeceptione aliqua vel suasione proponitur, ut, Mors omnibus 
communis est. 

Eodem fere modo utraque tractatur brevissime quidem sic. 



94 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

4. Simile. 
Ut aestas frugibus, ita deliberandi spatium matu- 
randis negotiis necessarium. 

5. Exemplum. 
Fabius Maximus [ut dicitur] Romanani cunctando 
restituit rem. 

6. Vetus Testimonium. 
Noverat enim verum esse vetus illud verbum; omnia 
fieri sat cito sat bene. 

7. Oonelusio. 
Bene igitur videtur consulere, qui lente monet festi- 
nare. 

THEMA II. 

Imprimis verier are Deum. 

Prop. Videtur illud mihi officium pietatis perquam 
necessarium, antequam ad obeunda quotidianae vitse 
opera nos accingamus, ab invocatione divini numinis 
auspicari. 

Rat. Quomodo enim fieri potest ut in operibus insti- 
tutis feliciter progrediamur, nisi propitium nobis faven- 
temque imprimis Deum reddiderimus ? 

Confirm. Nam sine ejus auxilio nihil est, quod quis- 
quam suscipere, vel conari, vel cogitare, necdum per- 
ficere, possit. 

Simile. Quemadmodum agricola terram frustra qui- 
dem colit, nisi pluviam cselestes reddant fructiferam ; ita 
nos inutiliter prorsus operi cuiquam admovebimus ma- 
num, si divina id gratia non irrigaverit, qua quod sus- 
cepimus ad exitum felicem perducamus.' 



DISPOSITION. 95 

Exemp. Memorise traditum est Eomanos olim nihil 
solicitos fuisse inauspicato molire, nihil aggredi, non 
explorata prius deorum suorum voluntate. Quanto id 
magis nos facere Christianos decet ! 

Vet. Test. Itaque Poeta recte monet, qui " a Jove 
principium, a Deo monet auspicandum." 

Conclus. Quare siquis habet in vortis ut omnia sibi 
negotia prospere cadant, operam imprimis det, ut pre- 
cious sibi conciliet voluntatem Dei ; quoniam solus, ut 
poetae verbis concludam: " Vires ille dat, ille rapit." 



CHREIA. 

THEMA III. 

Mors omnibus communis. 

Prop. Hominibus tandem serius aut citius moriendum 
est omnibus. 

Bat. Hanc enim naturae legem constituit omnipotens 
Deus, nequis e nostro genere immortalis sit. 

Oonf. Dei autem leges perfringi nullo modo possunt. 

Simile. Quare, ut Cato venit in theatrum ita nos in 
hunc mundum, ut exeamus. 

Exemp. Sanctissimus David, sapientissimus Solomon, 
Samson fortissimus, morti omnes succubuerunt. 

Ver. Test. Adeo verum est illud poetae: " Omnes una 
manet nox, et calcanda semel via lethi." 

Conclus. Vita igitur hac brevi nunc utamur fruam- 
urque, videlicet ex terra ficti in terram redituri. 



96 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

THEMA IV. 

Labor improbus omnia vincit. 

Prop. Nihil adeo est arduum, nihil tarn operosum, 
quod assiduitate laboris et constantia non possit ali- 
quando expugnari. 

Rat. Nam quae duae res omnium videntur difficilimae, 
cum sint pulcherimae, si quis diligenter operum dat, 
utramque sibi tandem conciliabit, rerum cognitionem 
atque virtutem. 

Oonf. Quippe virtutem, quaeque alia in bonis habentur, 
omnia posuisse Deus dicitur "sudoris in arce:" quam 
qui enitendo secutus fuerit, haec omnia simul conse- 
quitur. 

Simile. Quemadmodum enim gutta cavat lapidem, 
non vi sed saepe cadendo ; ita quae durissima sunt neque 
primo impetu superari possunt, industrial tamen et sedu- 
litati assiduae cedunt. 

Exemp, Accepimus olim perpetuis laboribus tantas 
res gessisse Herculem, quantas ab homine geri potuisse 
vix profecto jam credimus. 

Vet. Test. Adeo verum est id quod praeclare Q. Cur- 
tius in quit, " Nihil tarn alte natura posuit, quo virtus 
non possit eniti." 

Conclus. Est igitur hoc sole meridiano clarius, ea 
quemque in quibus laboraverit nervosque omnes inten- 
derit, exanimi sententia confecturum esse omnia; at 
merito indecorum et turpe habendum sit a rebus ho- 
nestis atque praeclaris metu difficultatis absterreri. 



DISPOSITION. 97 

THEMA V. 

m8axos a| itgw ofayfjuSas. — Callimachus. 

Prop. Cujuslibet rei elegantia concinnitate partium 
magis quam magnitudine commendatur. 

Rat. Quodcunque enim reipsa pulchrum est, nihil 
additamenti indiget. 

Conf. Plerumque etiam grandiora quae sunt, defectus, 
qualescunque sint, magis conspicuos exhibeant necesse 
est. 

Simile. Neque enim hoc a natura ratione abhorret, 
quae in minutis avibus decorandis magis operosa est, 
quam in elephanti mole conformanda. 

JExemp. Silicet non ducem alium quam naturam habet 
hominum judicium, qui Pindarum venerantur, Anacre- 
ontem diligunt magis, et amplectuntur. 

Vet. Test. Testem habemus Martialem: 

Ssepius in libro memoratur Persius uno, 
Quam levis in tota Marsus Amazonide. 

Concl. Quum ita sint, si quid nobis componendum 
proponatur, potius, ut numerus omnibus absolutum sit, 
quam prolixum, studeamus. 

THEMA VI. 

Plurimum enim intererit, quibus artibus et quibus hunc tu Moribus 
instituas. — Juv. Sat. xiv. 73. 

For it shall be of great consequence in what arts and in what morals 
you instruct him. 

Prop. Nemo potest illos dediscere mores, aut earn 
excutere vivendi rationem, ad quam ab ipsis olim incu- 
nabilis assuevit. 



98 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Hat. Quoniam impetus ille primus, tenera puerita 
inditus, tarn magnum habet in universa hominum vita 
monumentum, ut dediscat id sero, quod quis didicit diu. 

Conf. Quum enim longa annorum serie, frequentissi- 
maque actionum iteratione acquiruntur, in alteram quasi 
naturam transeunt. 

Simile. Quemadmodum avium pulli et ferarum catuli, 
semel mansuefacti, semper manent cicures etiam quando 
in grandiores evaserint; non dissimiliter quos didicerit 
mores puerilis setas, eosdem etiam turn quando adoleve- 
rit, penitissime sibi infixos usque retinebit. 

Exemp. Ovidio, scribendis versibus a teneris annis 
dedito, tarn familiaris ac pene naturalis facta est po- 
etica facultas, ut illi per universam deinceps vitam: 

Sponte sua numeros carmen veniebat ad aptos. 

Nee dissimiliter contigit in reliquis artibus vivendi 
que institutis. 

Vet. Test. Ad quid enim aliud respexit Cicero, cum 
dixerit, " Nullum nos posse majus meliusve reipublica 
afferre munus, quam docendo et erudiendo juventutem," 
nisi quod recta juventutis institutio ad summum reipub- 
licse emolumentum conducat maxime. 

Oonclu. Proinde si quis in votis habeat, liberos suos 
ad virtutem formare ac bonos mores; id imprimis ope- 
ram det ut virtutis atque pietatis odore, ab ipsis statim 
fasciis, intimius imbuantur; quern ad extremam usque 
senectutem redolebunt. 

Adeo in teneris assuescere multum est. — Virg, 



DISPOSITION. 99 



A Theme in English; the Thesis and Substance taken 
from 1 Esdras, iv. 

Great is the Truth, and stronger than all things. 

Prop. Truth is great, and mighty above all things. 
All the earth calleth upon it, the heaven blesseth it, all 
works shake and tremble at it, and with it is no un- 
righteous thing. 

Reas. Because with her there is no accepting of 
persons, or rewards; but she doeth the things which 
are just, and all men approve her works. 

Confirm. For in her judgment there is no unright- 
eousness, and she is the strength, dominion, power, and 
majesty of all ages. 

Simile. Even as God, the great Creator, is greater 
than the spacious earth, the high heaven, or the Swift 
sun that compasseth the heavens, and returns to his 
own place in one day ; so is Truth greater and stronger 
than all things. 

Exemp. Hence it is that David so frequently calls 
God a God of Truth. The Lord is my rock and my 
fortress, and my deliverer. Psal. xviii. 2. I have hated 
them that regard lying vanities: but I trust in the 
Lord: Lord God of Truth. Psal. xxxi. 5, 6. 

Test. And our Saviour Christ himself, to show the 
greatness, superiority, and eternity of Truth, calls him- 
self the Truth. I am the way, and the Truth, and the 
life. John xiv. 6. 

Oonel. Wine, therefore, is wicked, kings are wicked, 
women are wicked, all the children of men are wicked, 



100 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

and such are all their wicked works, all which must 
perish; but as for Truth, it endureth, and is always 
strong; it liveth and conquereth for evermore: I con- 
clude, and cry out, that, Great is the Truth, and 
stronger than all things. Blessed be the God of Truth. 



The same Theme in Greek. 

MeyaXn n AXr,Qna, xai is-yy^-rt^a nta^a irxtTa. 
Great is the Truth, and stronger than all things. 

(tf) Meya\v n aXnQzia xai is-^v^orsea tcaoa iravra. Tiara, n yn t«v AX«9s«"» 
*aX£i, xai 5' ajavoff avrtiv evXoyti, xai vravra ta egya esterai xzi tj^usi, xai yx 
irri /nil afTHf ahxov yS"£V. 

(&) On yx am irao avrnv \a. l u€a.\£:v 7reoTwrra, u$e $ix<po;a. a\>,a xai ts 
titxaix rroiei xai navrif bv^oxuti tji; E^yoiq avrv<;. 

(c) Ovv£na ax ss-rtv gv t« xgirsi avrns ufcv ahxov xai avrn, n i^xy'i Kal T0 
BanXetov, xai 55 e^eria, xai 55 fJt.eya\siorri' ruv 7ravTM aiwvwv. 

(c?) Kadcc; o ©E02, Of vavra ttoih, jutti£wv n /x=j/*X>i yn u-\.tXai-., «^/»»e f , et-rg 
tayys o rjXjoj, c; trrPiferai s> rx xvxXca ra UPavu, xai TraXtv awo-r^sr n? tov 
txvru Tcmov sv fxia n/ueea' ovtod; % AXnQsia fxn^aiv xai icr)(vsoTSea tra°a iravra. 

(e) Evtsv9bv o AABIA TroXXaxt? ovofxa^n ©£sv tov ©gov t»j AX«9s«aj. Kv^ios 
a-re^sxfxa juu, xai xaratyvyv fxe, xai gurrns |tty. Psalm, xviii. 2. E/ui«-»jra 
ry; o\a<}>t;>.a:r<rovTaj /uaTaiOTUTOf foaxsvn; $yto $e s?n tcc Kv^ta t:\iria-aKvfie o 
Beoq tij? AX»0£»a?. Psalm, xxxi. 5, 6. 

(/) Kat Ki/;ioj n/xtoi o XPI2T02 avrot;, tva $£(£» on nra^a Travra « AXr.Bsia 
vTTt£io-%vEi , eimv — Eyao tifxi n oJV, xai n AAH0EIA, xai n £a>». — Joan, xiv. 6. 

(g) Ou» «5(X5j ? oivsf, aS'JXO? o* Ba<riXsu;, ao\xa» ai rwatxs?, atiixoi Travre; ot vsoi 
t&jv avQgvriuv, xai ahxa Travra ra leya aurtvv ra roiavra, xai arro\yvTat. AXX 
t) A\rt&eia fxi-Ei xai is")^Vzi st? tov ajct'va, xai ^>j xai xjarst et- tov ajrwva ry 
aiiwvof. ETTiXs^iiJ xai <paovEH) — MjyaXn » AX»9e:a, xai iaxy*0TSga Trafa TraVT*. 
Eu\oy*iTO( o ©£3f r»]f AXrSsfaf. 

(a) Propositio. (6) Ratio. (c) Confirmatio. (d) Simile. 

(e) Exemplum. (/) Testimonium. (g) Conclusio. 



ELOCUTION. 101 



PART III 



ELOCUTION. 

What is Elocution ? 

Elocution is the proper, polite, and ornamental ex- 
pression of our thoughts.* 

Into how many parts is it divided ? 

Three: Composition, Elegance, and Dignity, f 

What is Composition ? 

Composition is such a structure of words and periods 
as conduces most to accuracy of expression and har- 
mony of sound. J 

* Omnis oratio tres habet virtutes, ut emendata, ut diltucida, ut ornata 
sit. — Quint. Inst., lib. i. cap. 5. 

f Hinc tria in se habere debet, Compositiomm, Ekganliam, et Digni- 
tatem. — Cic. ad Her^ lib. iv. cap. 12. 

J Dionysius of Halicarnassus, in his Treatise on the Structure of 
Words, has recounted the different sorts of style, has divided each into 
the periods of which it is composed, has again subdivided those periods 
into their different members, those members into their words, those 
words into syllables, and has even anatomized the very syllables into 
letters, and made observations on the different natures and sounds of 
the vowels, half-vowels and mutes. He shows also by examples from 
Homer, Herodotus, and Thucydides, with what artful management those 
distinguished writers have sweetened and ennobled their composition, 

9* 



102 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Enumerate the parts of Composition ? 
Period,* Order, f Juncture, J and Number. § 

and made their sound to echo to the sense. In lib. de Comp., cap. 2, he 
Says: "Es-ti -njf ZuvSso-ewj l^ya, oixekwj Suvai to. rt ovofxaTa Traj' a.Mn'Ka., holi 

o'xov rovhoyw:'" "The business of composition is to arrange our words in 
exact order respecting each other, to render to each member its proper 
harmonious sound, and to distinguish the whole oration into its most 
agreeable periods." 

* Cicero distinguishes sentences into two kinds: the one he calls 
"tracta," direct or straight; and the other "contorta," bent or winding. 
By the former he designates those sentences whose members follow 
each other in a direct order without any inflection; and by the latter, 
those consisting of correspondent parts, so formed that the voice, in pro- 
nouncing them, may have a proper elevation and cadence; and as the 
latter part returns back and unites with the former, the period, like a 
circle, surrounds and encloses the whole sense. For iregdSoe in Greek 
signifies a circle, or circuit; and the Latins called it circuitus and am- 
bitus. In the construction of periods, two things require attention; their 
length and cadence. Although the precise length of periods cannot be 
ascertained by any definite measure, yet the ancient rhetoricians seldom 
used more than four members or colons. The termination of each 
member should form a pause or rest in pronouncing: and these rests 
should be so distributed as to make the course of the breathing easy; 
for, to extend them farther than the voice can manage, must be painful 
to the speaker, and, consequently, unpleasant to the audience. As to 
cadence, Cicero says, that the ears judge what is full and what is de- 
ficient ; and Quintilian says, " Let there be nothing harsh or abrupt in 
the conclusion of the sentence on which the mind pauses and rests. 
This is the most material part in the structure of discourse. Here 
every hearer expects to be gratified; here his applause breaks forth." 
The only important rule, says Blair, that can be given here is, that the 
sound should be made to grow to the last ; the longest members of the 
period, and the fullest and most sonorous words should be reserved to 
the conclusion. 

f Order is of two kinds, Natural and Artificial : the one is peculiarly 
adapted to the genius of all the modern languages of Europe ; the other 
to the Latin, Greek, Sclavonic, Russian, and Gaelic. By the former, we 
arrange our words according to the order in which the understanding 



ELOCUTION. 103 

In what does Elegance consist ? 

In the perspicuity and propriety of language ; purity 
in the choice of words; and care and dexterity in their 
happy arrangement. 

directs those ideas to be exhibited to the view of another: and by the 
latter, the ancients generally arranged their words according to the 
order in which the ideas arose in the speaker's imagination. The 
natural order is more clear and distinct; the artificial more striking and 
animated. The modern arrangement appears to be the consequence of 
greater refinement in the art of speech ; the ancient gratifies more the 
rapidity of the imagination, which naturally runs first to that which is 
its chief object ; and having once named it, carries it in view through- 
out the rest of the sentence. In the ancient languages, the arrangement 
which most commonly obtains, is to place first in the sentence that 
word which expresses the principal object of the discourse, together 
with its circumstances; and afterwards, the person or the thing that 
acts upon it. In the construction of artificial sentences, Quintilian says, 
that the verb should stand last, " because the force of the sentence lies 
in the verb." The object of the ancients, therefore, was that, as the 
whole sentence is imperfect without the verb, the mind being thus 
held in suspense might receive a more permanent impression from it at 
last. 

J With regard to Juncture, it may be observed, that when the pre- 
ceding word ends with a vowel, the subsequent one ought to begin with 
a consonant; and vice versa. But when it is more perspicuous or con- 
venient for vowels or consonants to end one word and begin the next, 
it is proper that the vowels be a long and short one : and that the con- 
sonants be either a liquid and a mute, or liquids of different sorts. And 
lastly, the same syllable ought not to be repeated at the end of one 
word and the beginning of the subsequent one. The following verse, 
at the beginning of the first book of Virgil's iEneid, possesses all these 
properties: 

JLrma virumque cano, Trojm qui primus ab oris. 

Where any word, in this verse, ends with a vowel, the next begins 
with a consonant; and where any one ends with a consonant, the next 
begins with a vowel; and there is no repetition of the same sound 
throughout the whole line. It will be found extremely difficult, how- 



104 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

How is Elegance acquired ? 

By studying the most correct writers, and by fre- 
quent and accurate composition.* 

ever, on all occasions, to observe this harmonious construction ; espe- 
cially in the English language, which abounds with consonants. 

§ In the Greek and Roman languages every syllable has its distinct 
quantity ; and is either long, short, or common : two or more of these 
joined together in a certain order, make a foot, and a determinate num- 
ber of these in a different order constitute their several sorts of metre. 
This variety of sounds gives a much greater harmony to their poetry 
than what can arise only from the seat of the accent, and the similitude 
of sound at the end of two verses, which chiefly regulate our metre. 
And although their prose was not so confined with regard to the feet, 
as their metrical composition, yet it had a sort of measure, particularly 
in the rise and cadency of their periods, which they called rhetorical 
number. Accordingly, the ancient rhetoricians taught what feet were 
best adapted to the beginning, middle, or end of a sentence. As such 
rules, however, are not applicable to our language, which has not that 
accurate distinction of quantity in its syllables, the following general 
directions may contribute to modulate our periods, and adjust their 
cadency. A considerable number of long or short words near each 
other should be avoided; a succession of words of the same termina- 
tion should also be avoided ; nor should a sentence conclude with an 
adverb, a preposition, or any inconsiderable word. In genera], says 
Blair, it seems to hold, that a musical close, in our language, requires 
either the last syllable, or the penult, that is, the last but one, to be a 
long syllable. 

From these remarks on the constituent parts of Composition, namely, 
Period, Order, Juncture, and Number, it will appear manifest that the 
first treats of the structure of sentences; the second, of the parts of 
sentences, which are words and members; and the two last, of the 
parts of words, which are letters and syllables; the former exhibiting 
their connection, and the latter their quantity. 

* Elegantia acquiritur doctrina puerili, et consuetudine sermonis quo- 
tidiani, et lectione oratorum et poetarum confirmatur. — Cic. ad M. Brut, 
de Orat. 

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, on this subject thus expresses himself: 
" E7t Jet roiq t»v waXajwv £VTvyx,ct>£iv s-vyypafxfxas-tv, iv* svtsvSsv (J.n (xovw tjjj 



ELOCUTION. 105 

In what does dignity consist ? 

In elevation and grandeur of thought, magnificence 
of expression,* and a skilful application of Tropes and 
Figures, f 

What is a Trope ? 

A Trope (from t^xa, to turn) is the turning a 

UTrc&tosoi)? thv oXnv etWaxcti tcv tcdv i^ieufjt.a.'roov £nXsv ^oenyn&Mfxiv. H vaj 4 /V X n 
Ttf avayivwo-KOVToj, vtto tt\$ -rt/yE^yj Tra^aTn^Jio^a)?, txv o^oiOTKTa t» p^afcjt- 
TJigo? s*f>sXxgT«{." — De Prise. Script., cap. 1. "We ought to be conversant 
in the writings of the ancients, not only for subject matter, but for the 
sake of imitating them in every particular. For the mind of a reader, 
by a perpetual observation, insensibly contracts a similitude of style." 

To these instances may be added the following extract from the thir- 
teenth section of Longinus on the Sublime: "For hence it is, that num- 
bers of imitators are ravished and transported by a spirit not their own, 
like the Pythian priestess when she approaches the tripod. There is, 
if fame speaks true, a chasm in the earth, from whence exhale Divine 
evaporations, which impregnate her on a sudden with the inspiration of 
her god, and cause in her the utterance of oracles and predictions. So, 
from the 6ublime spirit of the ancients, there arise some fine effluvia, 
like vapors from the sacred vents, which work themselves insensibly 
into the breasts of imitators, and fill those who naturally are not of a 
towering genius, with the lofty ideas and fire of others." 

* Isocrates, speaking of Dignity, in Orat. v., contra Sophist., says : 
" tcdv xai^xv fxn Xia.y.a.e'rtiv, aWa xai -rot? sv9v,u>i3-ai7{ 7r^e7rovTa? oXov tov "KoyvJ 
XaTa7ro<xtXat, xai TOif ove,u.ae-«v iuevS/uoas xai fAmrtxass imW TctVTa. £e TToXXji? 
nv\.y.iklia$ fciTai. Hal ^UX*' atS^tJtnf Kai S^tts-TiKnf tpyov gy-n :" "To adapt 

everything to the occasion, to diversify, with becoming decency, the 
subject matter of an oration, and to place the words in a musical, har- 
monious order, require much diligence, sublime thought, and piercing 
penetration." 

f Majore autem cura rhetor doceat Tropos omnes et Figuras, quibus 
praecipue non modo poema, sed etiam Oratio ornatur.-~Qt«Vi£. Inst. 

Longinus, in one place, speaking of figures, says : " For these, when 
judiciously used, conduce not a little to greatness:" and, in another 
place, "Figures naturally impart assistance to, and, on the other side, 
receive it again, jn a wonderful manner, from sublime sentiments," 



106 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

word from its native and proper to a relative improved 
sense.* 

What occasioned the introduction of Tropes ? 

Necessity, Emphasis, and Ornament.^ 

How many primary Tropes are there ? 

Four; Metaphor, Metonymy, Synecdoche, and Irony. J 

* Quintilian says, " a Trope is the change of a word or speech from 
its proper signification to another, in order to greater perfection." 

Cicero, in his treatise entitled Brutus, says : " As to Tropes in general, 
they are particular forms of expression, in which the proper name of a 
thing is supplied by another, which conveys the same meaning, but is 
borrowed from its adjuncts or effects." 

"|" Cicero, in his third book de Oratore, says : " Modus transferendi 
verba late patet; quam necessitas primum genuit, coacta inopia et an- 
gustias; post auteru deiectatio, jucunditas que celebravit. Nam ut 
vestis frigoris depellendi causa reperta primo, post adhiberi caepta est 
ad ornatum etiam corporis et dignitatem sic verbi translatio instituta est 
inopiae causa, frequentata, delectationis : ' The figurative usage of words 
is very extensive ; an usage to which necessity first gave rise, on account 
of the paucity of words, and barrenness of language; but which the 
pleasure that was found in it afterwards rendered frequent. For as 
garments were first contrived to defend our bodies from the cold, and 
afterwards were employed for the purpose of ornament and dignity, so 
figures of speech, introduced by want, were cultivated for the sake of 
entertainment.' " 

Quintilian, in book viii. chap. 6, says, we now make use of Tropes, 
" Aut quia necesse est, aut quia significantius, aut quia decentius : ' Through 
necessity, or to express a thing more emphatically, or for the sake of 
ornament.'' " 

J Praecipuorum Troporum prsestantia si quaeratur; longe princeps 
erit Metaphora, Ironia deinde succedet, tertia erit Metonymia, postrema 
Synecdoche. Usus autem etiam frequentissimus est Metaphorae, deinde 
Metonymias, turn Synecdoches, rarissimus Ironias. — Aud. Takeus. 

Inter omnes illae commendatissimae habentur Metaphoras, quae rebus 
sensu expertibus actum quendam ac quasi animum tribuunt. Ut cum 
dicitur fluvius Araxis impositum sibi ab Alexandra pontem indignatus 
evertisse. — Walker, Rhet., lib. i. cap. 14. 



ELOCUTION. 107 

Define and exemplify the primary Tropes. 
A Metaphor, in place of proper words, 1 
Resemblance puts, and dress to speech affords. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Quintilian says, "a metaphor is a short simili- 
tude." And Cicero calls it a " similitude reduced to a 
single word." The peculiar effect of a metaphor is to 
give light and strength to description; to make intel- 
lectual ideas, in some sort, visible to the eye, by giving 
them color, and substance, and sensible qualities. Of 
all the flowers that embellish the regions of eloquence, 
there is none that rises to such an eminence, that bears 
so rich and beautiful a blossom, that diffuses such a 
copious and exquisite fragrance, or that so amply re- 
wards the care and culture of the poet or the orator. 
Quintilian reduces them to four kinds. 

The first kind of metaphors is founded on a compari- 
son of the qualities of animate beings: as, Achilles 
was a lion. So in the Evangelist Luke, our Saviour, 
in alluding to Herod, says: "Go and tell that fox" 
And Cicero, in his de Oratore, says: "Was it owing to 
art that my brother, here, when Philip asked him why 
he barked, answered, because I see a thief?" The 
second, of one inanimate thing with another: as, 
"Clouds of smoke;" "floods of fire;" "he loosed the 
navy's reins." The third, of animals with inanimate 
things: as, "Ajax was the bulwark of the Greeks;" 
"the two Scipios were thunderbolts of war." The last 
kind of metaphors is that by which the actions and 

Term translated. 
1. Translation. 



108 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

A Metonymy does new names impose, 2 
And things for things by near relation shows. 

EXAMPLES. 

other properties of animals are attributed to inanimate 
objects. Thus, Yirgil says: 

A raxes' stream 
Indignant with a bridge to be confined. 

And Homer: he said, 

Divine Calypso at the sound 
Shudder 'd, and in winged accents thus replied. 

2. Quintilian says, that " Metonymy consists in sub- 
stituting one name for another." Vossius calls it "a 
trope, which changes the names of things which are 
naturally united, but in such a manner, as that one is 
not of the essence of the other." Metonymies are 
commonly distinguished into four kinds. 

The first is, when the cause is put for the effect: as, 
"He reads Homer," that is, Homer's works; "they 
have Moses and the prophets;" meaning the writings 
of Moses and the prophets. The second puts the effect 
for the cause. Thus Virgil calls the two Scipios the 
destruction of Libya, because they were the agents 
who effected it. Horace also compliments Maecenas 
with the titles of being his guard and honor: that is, 
his guardian, and the author of his honor. And in 
another place he says: "Pale death knocks at the cot- 
tages of the poor and the palaces of kings, with an 
impartial pace." 

Term translated. 
2. Changing of names. 



ELOCUTION. 109 

Synecdoche the whole for part cloth take; 

Or, of a part for whole, exchange cloth make. 3 

EXAMPLES. 

The third is when the subject is put for the adjunct. 
By the subject here may be understood that in which 
some other thing is contained; as also the thing signi- 
fied, when put for the sign. By the former of these 
modes of expression, we say the kettle boils; he drank 
the foaming bowl: and by the latter, this is my body, 
and this is my blood. The fourth kind of Metonymy 
is when the adjunct is put for the subject. It is a 
Metonymy of the adjunct when the thing contained is 
put for that which contains it, and when the sign is put 
for the thing signified. By the former kind Virgil says 
they lie down upon purple, that is, upon couches dyed 
with purple. And again, they crown the wine, mean- 
ing the bowl which contained the wine; and by the 
latter, to assume the sceptre, is a phrase for entering 
on royal authority. So Virgil, describing the temple 
of Juno at Carthage, in which the actions of the Trojan 
war were represented, and the images of the heroes, 
makes iEneas, upon discovering that of Priam among 
the rest, cry out: 

Lo ! here is Priam ! 

3. A thing may be considered as a whole in three 
different respects; which logicians call an universal, 
essential, and integral whole; hence arise six species 
or sorts of Synecdoche. 

Term translated. 
3. Comprehension. 

10 



110 THE ART OP RHETORIC. 

EXAMPLES. 

By tlie first of these the genus is put for the spe- 
cies. Thus, when our Saviour delegated his apostles 
to preach the gospel to every creature, his meaning 
was, to every rational creature. The second is, when 
the species is put for the genus : as, wine destroys more 
than the sword, that is, than any hostile arms. And 
the legal form of banishment among the Romans was 
to prohibit persons the use of fire and water: that is, 
the most common and ordinary necessaries of life, in 
which all others were included. The third is, when the 
essential whole is put for one of its parts. Thus, in 
the Evangelist, Mary Magdalen says: "They have 
taken away my Lord, and I know not where they have 
laid him;" meaning his body. The fourth is, when the 
name of one of the constituent parts is put for the 
whole essence: as, "the soul that sinneth, it shall die;" 
and "all the souls that came with Jacob into Egypt 
were threescore and six." So we imitate the Latins in 
using the word caput or head, to denote either a person 
or thing. Eor, as with them lepidum caput, so with us 
a witty head, signifies the same as a man of wit. 

The fifth is, when the whole of any material thing or 
quantity, whether continued or discrete, is put for a part 
of it. Thus Cicero says: "A war is kindled through the 
whole world;" in compliment to his country, he calls 
the Roman empire the world. So St. Luke: There 
went out a decree from Caesar Augustus that all 
the world should be taxed. And our Saviour, using 
this trope, said he should be three days and three nights 
in the heart of the earth; meaning part of the first 



ELOCUTION. Ill 

An Irony, dissembling with an air, 4 

Thinks otherwise than what the words declare. 

How many Secondary Tropes are there ? 

EXAMPLES. 

and third day, and all the second day; and by this 
kind of synecdoche the plural number is sometimes put 
for the singular. Thus, St. Matthew says, the thieves 
who were crucified with our Saviour reviled him: though 
it is manifest from St. Luke that only one of them acted 
in that manner. By the sixth kind of synecdoche a 
part of any material thing or quantity is put for the 
whole. Accordingly, some ancient writers, when they 
speak of the Grecian Armada which sailed against 
Troy, call it a fleet of a thousand ships; although, ac- 
cording to Homer's list, it contained 1186. In like 
manner, the Greek interpreters of the Old Testament 
are commonly called the Seventy; whereas, in reality, 
they were seventy-two. 

4. Quintilian says, that "an Irony may be under- 
stood by the tone of the voice, character of the person, 
or nature of the thing." Thus, the irony is very plain 
from the manner of pronunciation in that passage of 
Terence, where Simo, speaking to his servant, says, by 
way of reproof for his negligence: "You have taken 
great care, indeed." Cicero addressing Catiline, says: 
He went to your companion, that excellent man, Marcus 
Marcellus. And when he begins his oration for Liga- 
rius, by saying, Caesar, this is a neiv crime, and never 

Term translated. 
4. Dissimulation. 



112 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Fourteen; Sarcasmus, Diasyrmus, Charientismus, 
Asteismus, Oatachresis, Hyperbole, Metalepsis, Alle- 
gory, Parosmia, JEnigma, Antonomasia, Litotes, Ono- 
matopoeia, and Antiphrasis. 

EXAMPLES. 

heard of till now : the thing he is speaking of, shows it 
to be an Irony; for it was not neiv, as all who were 
present very well understood. 

Ironies are sometimes applied by way of jest and 
raillery, as when Cicero says of the person against 
whom he was pleading: "We have much reason to 
believe that the modest man would not ask him for his 
debt when he pursues his life." At other times, by 
way of insult and derision. Thus, when Cicero would 
represent the forces of Catiline as mean and contempt- 
ible, he says: "0 terrible war, where Catiline's praeto- 
rian guard consists of such a dissolute, effeminate crew ! 
Against these gallant troops of your adversary, prepare, 
Romans, your garrisons and armies." 

The subjects of Irony are vices and follies of all 
kinds; and this mode of exposing them is often more 
effectual than serious reasoning. The gravest persons 
have not denied the use of this trope, on proper occa- 
sions. The wise and virtuous Socrates used it so fre- 
quently, in his endeavors to discountenance vicious and 
foolish practices, that he was designated by the appel- 
lation of £i£M, or the ironical philosopher. Even in 
the Sacred Writings we have numerous examples of it. 
The prophet Elijah, when he challenged the priests of 
Baal to prove the truth of their deity, "mocked them, 
and said: Cry aloud, for he is a god; either he is talk- 



ELOCUTION. 113 

Define and exemplify the secondary Tropes. 
Sarcasmus, with a bitter jeer, doth kill, 5 
And ev'ry word with strongest venom fill. 
A Diasyrmus must ill nature show, 6 
And ne'er omit to insult a living foe. 
Charientismus, when it speaks, doth choose 7 
The softer for the harsher words to use. 
Asteismus loves to jest with strokes of wit, 8 

EXAMPLES. 

ing, or he is pursuing, or he is in a journey, or perad- 
venture he sleepeth, and must be awaked." See Matth. 
xxvi. 50; Gen. iii. 22; 2 Sam. vi. 20; Job xii. 2; 
Matth. xxvi. 45. 

5. Tomyris, queen of Scythia, having taken Cyrus 
prisoner, cut off his head and threw it into a vessel full 
of human blood, saying, "Now, Cyrus, satiate yourself 
with blood." So, in St. Matthew: "Hail, King of the 
Jews!" See also Psalms cxxxvii. 3; Mark xv. 31, 32. 

6. Turnus thus addresses Drances in the eleventh 
book of Virgil's iEneid: "Wherefore, thunder on in 
noisy eloquence, as you are wont, and arraign me of 
cowardice, thou valiant Drances, since thy right-hand 
hath raised so many heaps of slaughtered Trojans, and 
everywhere thou deckest the fields with trophies." 

7. Davus, in the Andria of Terence, Act i. Scene 2, 
says: Softly, sir, softly, I beseech you. And Virgil: 
Be not incensed, great priest. 

8. Virgil says, "Who hates not Bavius' verse, may 

Terms translated. 
5. A bitter taunt. 6. Detraction. 7. Softening. 8. Civility. 

10* 



114 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

And slily with the point of satire hit.* 
A Catachresis words too far doth strain; 9 
Rather from such abuse of speech refrain. 

EXAMPLES. 

love thine, Msevius: and the same fool may join 
foxes in the yoke, and milk he-goats." 

9. This trope is chiefly used by poets, who make 
choice of it for novelty or boldness. Thus Milton, de- 
scribing the descent of the angel Raphael from heaven, 
says : 

Down thither, prone in flight, 
He speeds, and, through the vast ethereal sky, 
Sails between worlds and worlds. 

And Virgil says, that the Greeks, wearied by the 
length of the siege of Troy, 

An horse erect, 
Of mountain bulk, by Pallas' art divine. 

So, Homer: 

Phemius ! let acts of gods and heroes old, 
What ancient bards in hall and bow'r have told 
Attemper'd to the lyre, your voice employ, 
Such the pleased ear will drink with silent joy. 

It is sometimes found, however, in the gravest au- 
thors, and even in the Sacred Writings: as, "Thou didst 
drink the pure, blood of the grape;" "And I turned to 
see the voice that spake with me." See Hosea iv. 8; 
Psal. cxxxvii. 5; Jer. xlvi. 10. 

Term translated. 
9. Abuse. 



* Holmes says that Sarcasmus, Diasyrmus, Charientismus, and As- 
teismus, may be referred to an Irony. 



ELOCUTION. 115 

Hyperhole soars high or creeps too low; 10 
Exceeds the truth things wonderful to show.* 

EXAMPLES. 

10. Quintilian defines Hyperbole "an exaggeration 
surpassing truth, which may be equally proper for ar- 
gumentation and diminution." 

Longinus says, " Hyperboles equally serve two pur- 
poses; they enlarge and they lessen. Stretching any- 
thing beyond its natural size is the property of both." 

"I saw their chief," says the scout of Ossian, "tall 
as a rock of ice; his spear the blasted fir; his shield 
the rising moon: he sat on the shore like a cloud of 
mist on the hill." 

So Cassius speaks invidiously of Caesar, in order to 
raise the indignation of Brutus: 

Why, man, he doth bestride the narrow world 
Like a Colossus, and we petty men 
Walk under his huge legs, and peep about 
To find ourselves dishonorable graves. 



Pope says 



Milton's strong pinions now at Heav'n can bound, 
Now, serpent-like, in prose he sweeps the ground. 



And Virgil : 



On each side mighty rocks ; above the rest 
Two threaten heav'n. 

Term translated. 

10. Excess. 

* The excess in this trope is called Auxesis, and the contrary extreme 
Meiosis. 



116 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

By Metalepsis, in one word combin'd 11 
More tropes than one you easily may find.* 

EXAMPLES. 

Herodotus has used hyperbole concerning those war- 
riors who fell at Thermopylae: "In this place they 
defended themselves with the weapons that were left, 
and with their hands and teeth, till they were buried 
under the arrows of barbarians." 

Although hyperboles should, in most cases, exhibit 
an air of probability, yet Longinus says, that "in 
comedy, circumstances wholly absurd and incredible 
pass off very well, because they answer their end, and 
raise a laugh. As in this passage : ' He was owner of 
a piece of ground not so large as a Lacedemonian let- 
ter.' ' See Job xxxix. 19; 2 Sam. i. 23; Deut. ix. 1. 

11. During the civil war between Sylla and Marius, 
Sylla, observing the boundless ambition of Julius Caesar, 
said: "In one Caesar there are many Mariuses." In 
this expression there is a Metalepsis: for the word Ma- 
rius, by Synecdoche, or Antonomasia, is put for any. 
ambitious or turbulent person, and this, again, by a 
Metonymy of the cause for the effects of such a per- 
nicious disposition to the state. Sylla's meaning, 
therefore, was, that Caesar would prove a very dan- 
gerous person to the Roman people, which eventually 
proved true. 

Term translated. 
11. Participation, or Transumption. 



* Tropus rarrissimus et maxime improprius. — Quint. Inst., lib. 



ELOCUTION. 117 

An Allegory tropes continue still,* 12 
Which with new graces every sentence fill. 

EXAMPLES. 

The following words of Dido, in Virgil, contain a 
Metalepsis : 

Happy, ah truly happy, had I been 

If Trojan ships our coast had never seen. 

Here, by a Metonymy of the adjunct, the ships are 
put for the Trojans in the ships; and these, by a Syn- 
ecdoche of the whole, for iEneas, who was one of them ; 
and again, his arriving on the coast, by a Metonymy of 
the cause, for her seeing him; and, lastly, her seeing 
him, by the same trope, for the passion she entertained 
for him. Her meaning, therefore, was, that she would 
have been happy had she never loved iEneas. 

12. As a Metalepsis comprises several tropes in one 
word, so this is a continuation of several tropes in one 
or more sentences. Allegories are of two kinds; pure 
and mixed. The fourteenth ode of the first book of 
Horace, in which, by a ship, he means the common- 
wealth; by the agitations of stormy seas, civil wars; 
and by a harbor, peace and concord, may be an ex- 
ample of the former kind. And Cicero says: "I am 
surprised at, and even pity that man, who has so han- 
kering a desire after calumny, that rather than refrain 

Term translated. 
12. Speaking differently from meaning. 



* To the Allegory may be referred all apologues, such as yEsop's 
Fables, the parables of Scripture, and the Song of Solomon. Pareemia 
and Enigma are also species of Allegory. 



118 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

JEnigma, in dark words, the sense conceals; 13 
But that, once known, a riddling speech reveals. 
Parcemia, by a proverb, tries to teach 14 
A short, instructing, and a nervous speech. 

EXAMPLES. 

from it, he chooses to sink the vessel in which he sails." 
But the mixed Allegory is more frequently used. Thus, 
Cicero says: "As for other storms and tempests, I 
always believed Milo had no occasion to be apprehen- 
sive of any, except amidst those boisterous waves of 
the assemblies of the people." If he had not added 
"the assemblies of the people," it would have been a 
jmre Allegory; but, by adding those words, it became 
mixed, and in that manner it receives beauty from the 
borrowed words, and perspicuity from the proper. See 
Eccles. xii. 5, 6; Psal. lxxx. 8-14; Job xxix. 6. 

13. Quintilian says: "When the Allegory is involved 
in obscurity, it becomes an enigma, which I must think, 
indeed, to be a vice, and for no other reason, than be- 
cause perspicuity is a perfection. Poets, however, use 
it;" as, Tell me (and you shall be my great Apollo) 
where heaven's circuit extends not farther than three 
ells. See Gen. xl. and xli. ; Dan. iv. 10, 11, &c. ; Judg. 
xiv. 14; Isa. xi. 1, 2, &c. 

14. "You wash the blackmoor white;" that is, you 
labor in vain. So, in Terence: "I have a wolf by the 
ears;" that is, I know not which way to turn me. And 
in the prophet Ezekiel: As is the mother, so is her 
daughter. 

Terms translated. 
13. A Riddle. 14. A Proverb. 



ELOCUTION. 119 

Antonomasia proper names imparts, 15 
From kindred, country, epithets, or arts. 
Litotes doth more sense than words include, 16 
And often by two negatives have stood. 

EXAMPLES. 

15. Quintilian says: "The Antonomasia is a trope 
which puts an equivalent in the place of a name." 
Thus Virgil, by using an attribute characteristic of 
Jupiter, says: 

The sire of gods and king of men. 

And Longinus, alluding to Homer, says: " Among a 
thousand instances, we may see, from what the poet 
has said, with so much boldness, of the Aloides." 

On the contrary, it is used when a proper name is 
put for a general term : and when we call a great war- 
rior an Alexander ; a great orator a Demosthenes ; and 
a great patron of learned men a Mcecenas. Antono- 
masia may also be used when we intend to convey a 
lively image to the mind. So Milton : 

O'er many a frozen, many a fiery Alp. 

See John xi. 28; Matth. ix. 6. 

16. In the Andria of Terence, Act ii. Scene 6, Davus 
says: "I don't approve it," that is, 1 censure it. And 
in the seventh book of Virgil's iEneid, Latinus thus 
addresses Ilioneus: " Trojan, what you demand shall 
be given: nor do I reject your presents;" that is, I 
willingly receive them. And the apostle says: But 

Terms translated. 
15. For a name, 16. A Lessening. 



120 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Onomatopoeia coins a word from sound, 17 
By which alone the meaning may be found. 
Antiphrasis makes words to disagree 18 
From sense; if rightly they derived be. 

EXAMPLES. 

with many of them God was not well pleased ; for they 
were overthrown in the wilderness. See also Psalm li. 
17; Matth. ii. 6; Psalm ix. 12. 

17. Quintilian says: " There have been many words 
invented by the first authors of our language, in order 
to adapt sounds to the natures of the affections they 
desired to express; and hence we may account for the 
origin of the words to bellow, to hiss and to murmur." 
The following example occurs in Homer: 

And when the horn was rounded to an arch, 

He twanged it. Whizz'd the bowstring, and the reed 

With full impatience started to the goal. 

Hamlet thus censures the violent and unnatural ges- 
ture of some actors: "I would have such a fellow 
whipped for out-doing Termagant: it out-herods He- 
rod." And Swift expresses himself in the following 
manner relative to Blackmore, the author of a transla- 
tion of the Psalms into English verse: 

Sternhold himself he out-sternholded. 

18. Thus Lucns, from Lux, light, signifies a dark 
shady grove; Bellnm, from Bellum, fine or pretty, sig- 
nifies war; and P areas, from parco, to spare, signifies 
fate; because fate spares none. 

Terms translated. 
17. Coining a word from the sound. 18. Contrary word. 



ELOCUTION. 121 

What is a Figure ? 

A figure is that language which is suggested either 
by the imagination or the passions. 

What is the difference between Tropes and Figures ? 

Tropes affect only single words; Figures whole sen- 
tences. 

How are the principal figures usually divided ? 

Into Repetitions of Sounds, and Figures of Sentences. 

What are Repetitions of Sounds ? 

They are such as gracefully repeat either the same 
word, or the same sound in different words. 

How many Repetitions are there ? 

Fifteen: Anaphora, Epistrophe, Symploee, Epana- 
lepsis, Epanodos, Anadiplosis, Epizeuxis, Ploce, JPo- 
lyptoton, Antanaclasis, Paronomasia, Paregmenon, 
Homoioteleuton, Climax, and Synonymy. 

Define and exemplify the Repetitions of Sounds. 

Anaphora gives more sentences one head; 19 

As readily appears to those who read. 

EXAMPLES. 

19. Cicero uses this figure in his first oration against 
Catiline: "Does neither the night guard of the palace, 
nor the city watch, nor the people's fear, nor the union 
of all good men, nor the meeting of the senate in this 
fortified place, nor the countenances and looks of this 
assembly, move you?" 

And Virgil, in his tenth Eclogue, says: 

Here cooling fountains roll through flow'ry meads ; 
Here woods, Lycoris, lift their verdant heads ; 

Term translated. 
19. Rehearsal. 
11 



122 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Epistrophe more sentences doth close 20 

With the same words, whether in verse or prose. 

EXAMPLES. 

Here could I wear my careless life away, 
And in thy arms insensibly decay. 

Another beautiful instance of this figure occurs in 
the lamentation of Orpheus for Eurydice, in Yirgil's 
fourth Georgic: 

Thee, his loved wife, along the lonely shores; 
Thee, his loved wife, his mournful song deplores; 
Thee, when the rising morning gives the light, 
Thee, when the world was overspread with night. 

In the book of Psalms, David says: " The voice of the 
Lord is upon the waters : The voice of the Lord is 
powerful; the voice of the Lord breaketh the cedars of 
Lebanon." See also Jer. viii. 2; 1 Cor. i. 20; Psal. 
cxviii. 8, 9; Rom. viii. 38; Jer. 1. 35, 36, 37. 

20. There is scarcely a more beautiful instance of 
this figure, than in Cicero's second oration against 
Antony. — "You mourn, Romans! that three of 
your armies have been slaughtered — they were slaugh- 
tered by Antony: you lament the loss of your most 
illustrious citizens — they were torn from you by An- 
tony: the authority of this order is deeply wounded — 
it is wounded by Antony: in fine, all the calamities we 
have ever since beheld, (and what calamities have we 
not beheld ?) if we reason rightly, have been entirely 
owing to Antony. As Helen was of Troy, so the bane, 
the misery, the destruction of this state — is Antony." 

Term translated. 
20. A turning to. 



ELOCUTION. 123 

Symploce joins these figures both together, 21 
And from both joined makes up itself another. 
Epanalepsis words doth recommend, 22 
The same at the beginning and the end. 

EXAMPLES. 

And St. Paul says : " When I was a child I spake 
as a child, I understood as a child, I thought as a 
child." See also Psal. cxv. 9, 10, 11; Matth. vii. 23; 
Joelii. 26, 27; Amos iv. 6, 8. 

21. Cicero, in his oration for Milo, says: " Who re- 
quired these witnesses? Appius. Who produced them? 
Appius." And in another place: " Who was the author 
of the law? Rullus. Who deprived a majority of the 
people of their suffrages ? Rullus. Who presided at 
the elections? Rullus." And again: " Who often 
broke their treaties ? The Carthaginians. Who waged 
a cruel war in Italy? The Carthaginians. Who laid 
waste Italy? The Carthaginians. Who sue for par- 
don? The Carthaginians" 

A beautiful example of this figure occurs in St. Paul, 
when he says: u Are they Hebrews? So am I. Are 
they Israelites ? So am I. Are they the seed of Abra- 
ham? So am I." See also Psal. xlvii. 6; Psal. cxviii. 
2, 3, 4; cxxxvi. 1, 2, 3; Rom. xiv. 8. 

22. Quintilian gives the following example of this 
figure, from Cicero: " Many and terrible punishments 
were invented for parents, and for relations, many." 
And Cicero addressing Caesar, in his oration for Mar- 
cellus, says : " We have seen your victory terminated 

Terms translated. 
21. Complication, or Connection. 22. Repetition. 



124 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

By Epanodos a sentence shifts its place; 23 
Takes first and last and also middle space. 
Anadiplosis ends the former line, 24 
With what the next does for its first design. 

EXAMPLES. 

by the war: yonr drawn sword in the city we have not 
seen." St. Paul also uses this figure when he says: 
" Rejoice in the Lord alway: and again I say, rejoice" 
See 1 Cor. iii. 21, 22; Psal. viii. 1, 9. 

23. Minutius Felix, exposing the absurdity of the 
Egyptian superstition, says: "Isis, with Cynocephalus 
and her priests, laments, bemoans, and seeks her lost 
son; her attendants beat their breasts, and imitate the 
grief of the unhappy mother ; in a little time the son 
is found, upon which they all rejoice. Nor do they 
cease every year to lose what they find, or find what 
they lose. And is it not ridiculous to lament what you 
worship, or worship what you lament?'* 

Another example of this figure occurs in the eighth 
Eclogue of Virgil, which is thus translated by Smith: 

Whether the worst ? the child accurst, 

Or else the cruel mother ? 
The mother worst, the child accurst; 

As bad the one as the other. 

The following beautiful example is from the book of 
Judges : " The river of Kishon swept them away, that 
ancient river, the river Kishon" See also Ezek, vii. 
6; Rom. vii. 19; John viii. 47; 2 Thess. ii. 4; Ezek. 
xxxv. 6. 

24. Cicero, in his first oration against Catiline, says: 

Terms translated. 
23. A Regression. 24. Reduplication. 



ELOCUTION. 125 

An Epizeuxis twice a word repeats 25 
Whate'er the subject be whereon it treats. 
By Ploce we a proper name repeat; 26 
Yet as a common noun the latter treat. 

EXAMPLES. 

"He lives; lives! did I say? he even comes into the 
senate." And in the same oration: "As long as there 
is one who dares to defend thee, thou shalt live; and 
live so as thou now dost, surrounded by the numerous 
and powerful guards which I have placed about thee." 
So in the tenth Eclogue of Virgil: "These you will 
make acceptable to G alius ; to Gf alius, for whom my 
love grows as much every hour as the green alder 
shoots up in the infancy of spring." And in the book 
of Deuteronomy: "For the Lord thy God bringeth 
thee into a good land; a land of brooks of water." 
See also Rom. viii. 16, IT; Isa. xxx. 9; Psal. xlviii. 8; 
Psal. cxxii. 2, 3; Luke vii. 31, 32. 

25. Cicero, expressing his extreme indignation against 
Antony, as the promoter of the civil war, says: " You, 
you Antony, pushed Caesar upon the civil war." And 
in Virgil: "Ah! Corydon, Corydon, what frenzy has 
possessed you ?" So in Matt, xxiii. 37: "0 Jerusalem, 
Jerusalem, thou that killest the prophets," &c. See 
also Isa. li. 9; 2 Sam. xviii. 33. 

26. Milton affords an instance of this figure in the 
ninth book of Paradise Lost: 

Frail is our happiness if this be so, 

And Eden were no Eden (i. e. pleasure) thus exposed. 

Terms translated. 

25. A joining together. 26. Continuation. 

11* 



126 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

A Polyptoton still the same word places, 27 

If sense require it, in two different places. 

Antanaclasis in one sound contains 28 

More meanings; which the various sense explains. 

EXAMPLES. 

Another example occurs in the book of Genesis: "Is 
not he rightly named Jacob f {i. e. a mpplanter ;) for 
he hath supplanted me these two times." And Cicero 
says: "Young Cato wants experience, but yet he is 
Oato;" meaning that he possessed the inflexible integ- 
rity of the family. So the proverb : "An ape is an 
ape dress it ever so fine." 

27. Cicero, in his oration for Cselius, says: "We 
will contend with arguments, we will refute accusations 
by evidences brighter than light itself: fact shall en- 
gage with fact, cause with cause, reason with reason." 
And Virgil, describing the battle between the Trojan 
and Latin armies, says: "Foot to foot is fixed, and 
man to man is closely joined." So in the following 
passage from Romans: " For of him, and through him, 
and to him are all things." See Dan. ii. 37; John 
iii. 13. 

28. When Proculeius complained that his son wished 
for his death, the son, to clear himself of suspicion, 
assured him that he did not wait for it. His father 
replied^ I desire you to wait for it. Here it is obvious 
that the word wait is taken in two different senses. So 
in St. Matthew: "But Jesus said unto him, follow me; 
and let the dead bury their dead" In the one clause 

Terms translated. 
27. Variation of case. 28. A Reciprocation. 



ELOCUTION. 127 

Paronomasia to the sense alludes, 29 $- 

When words but little varied it includes. 
Paregmenon derived from one recites 30 
More words, and in one sentence them unites. 
Homoioteleuton makes the measure chime, 31 
With like sounds, in the end of fettered rhyme. 

EXAMPLES. 

of this verse dead denotes a moral or spiritual death ? 
and in the other a natural death. See Matth. x. 39; 
John iv. 13, 14; Matth. xxvi. 29; Isa. lix. 18. 

29. The following are examples of this figure : 
" Friends are turned fiends;" "After a feast comes a 
fast;" "A friend in need is a friend indeed." And 
Cicero, in the second book of de Oratore, says that 
Cato called the nobility t mobility." This figure fre- 
quently occurs in the sacred writings. Thus St. Paul 
says: " For though we walk in the flesh we do not war 
after the flesh. And in another place: "As unknown 
and yet well Jcnown." 

30. Cicero, in his Essay on Friendship, says: "In 
the present performance, it is & friend explaining to a 
friend his notions concerning friendship." So in the 
book of Daniel: "He giveth wisdom unto the wise, 
and knowledge to them that know understanding." See 
1 Cor. xv. 47; Prov. xi. 15, 25. 

31. The mountains skipped like rams, and the little 
hills like lambs. 

Terms translated. 
29. Likeness of words. 30. Derived from the same. 

31. Alike ending. 



128 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Climax by gradation still ascends, 32 
Until the sense with finished period ends. 
Synonymy doth diff'rent words prepare, 33 
Yet each of them one meaning doth declare. 

EXAMPLES. 

32. There is great strength as well as beauty in this 
figure, when the several steps rise naturally out of 
each other, and are closely connected by the sense 
which they jointly convey. This mutual relation of 
parts we may perceive in the following example: 
"There is no enjoyment of property without govern- 
ment, no government without a magistrate, no magis- 
trate without obedience, and no obedience where every 
one acts as he pleases." In the same manner, when 
Cicero is pleading for Milo, he says: "Nor did he com- 
mit himself only to the people, but also to the senate; 
nor to the senate only, but likewise to the public forces ; 
nor to these only, but also to the power of him with 
whom the senate had entrusted the whole common- 
wealth." And, in another place, he says: "What 
hope is there remaining of liberty, if whatever is their 
pleasure it is lawful for them to do; if what is lawful 
for them to do they are able to do; if what they are 
able to do they dare do; if what they dare do they 
really execute; and if what they execute is no way 
offensive to you?" See Rom. v. 3, 5; 2 Pet. i. 5, 7; 
Rom. viii. 29, 30, 38, 39; 1 Cor. iii. 21, 23. 

33. As there are scarcely two words, in any Ian- 

Terms translated. 
32. A ladder. 33. Partaking together of a name. 



ELOCUTION, 129 

How are Figures of Sentences divided? 

Into figures for reasoning, and figures for moving the 
passions. 

How many figures for reasoning are there ? 

Seven: Erotesis, JProlepsis, Epitrope, Anacoenosis, 
Antithesis, Oxymoron and Aporia. 

Define and exemplify the figures for reasoning. 

By Erotesis, what we know we ask, 34 

Prescribing to ourselves a needless task. 

EXAMPLES. 

guage, that convey precisely the same idea, the use of 
this figure is so far extended as to comprehend words 
of a near affinity in their signification. Thus Cicero, 
speaking of Piso, says: " His whole countenance, which 
is the tacit language of the mind, has drawn men into 
a mistake, and deceived, cheated, and imposed on those 
who did not know him." And Ilioneus, in his speech 
to Dido, thus speaks relative to iEneas : " Whom if the 
fates preserve, if he still breathes the vital air, and does 
not yet rest with the ruthless shades." The following 
beautiful example is from the nineteenth chapter of 
Isaiah: "The fishers also shall mourn, and all they 
that cast angles into the brooks shall lament, and they 
that spread nets upon the waters shall languish." See 
Prov. iv. 14, 15. 

34. Demosthenes thus addresses the Athenians : 
"Would you go about the city, and demand what 
news? What greater news can there be, than that a 
Macedonian enslaves the Athenians, and disposes of 

Term translated. 
34. Interrogation. 



130 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Prolepsis jour objection doth prevent, 35 
With answers suitable and pertinent. 

EXAMPLES. 

the affairs of Greece ? Is Philip dead ? No : but he is 
sick. And what advantage would accrue to you from 
his death? For, if anything happens to this Philip, 
you will immediately raise up another." Germanicus 
thus reproaches his mutinous soldiers: "What is there 
in these days that you have not attempted? What 
have you not profaned ? What name shall I give to 
this assembly? Shall I call you soldiers? You, who 
have besieged with your arms, and surrounded with a 
trench the son of your emperor? Shall I call you 
citizens? You, who have so shamefully trampled upon 
the authority of the senate? You, who have violated 
the justice due to enemies, the sanctity of embassy, and 
the rights of nations?" Balaam thus expresses himself 
to Balak: " The Lord is not a man that he should lie, 
neither the son of man that he should repent. Hath 
he said, and shall he not do it? or, hath he spoken, and 
shall he not make it good?" See Job viii. 3; Psal. 
lxxvii. 7-9. 

35. Cicero, for several years after he began to plead, 
had employed his eloquence only in defence of his 
friends. And, therefore, when the Sicilians prevailed 
with him to manage the prosecution against Yerres, he 
begins his oration with this Prolepsis: "If any one 
present should wonder that I, whose practice for so 
many years, in causes and public trials, has been such 

Term translated. 
35. Prevention. 



ELOCUTION. 131 

Upitrope gives leave and facts permits, 36 
Whether it speaks sincere or counterfeits. 

EXAMPLES. 

as to defend many and accuse none, now suddenly 
change my custom, and descend to the office of an ac- 
cuser; when he shall have heard the occasion and 
reason of my design, he will both approve it, and think 
that I deserve the preference to all others, in the ma- 
nagement of the present affair." And then he pro- 
ceeds to enumerate the reasons which induced him to 
adopt this determination. 

We have a beautiful instance of this figure in Cato: 

" But, grant that others can with equal glory, 
Look down on pleasures and the bait of sense, 
Where shall we find the man that bears affliction, 
Great and majestic in his ills, like Cato?" 

And St. Paul says: "But some man will say, how 
are the dead raised up? and with what body do they 
come ? Thou fool ! that which thou sowest is not 
quickened, except it die." See Matth. xv. 26, 27; 1 
Kings xviii. 17, 18. 

36. Cicero, pleading for Flaccus, in order to invali- 
date the testimony of the Greeks, who were witnesses 
against his client, allows them every quality but that 
which was necessary to make them credited. " This, 
however, I say concerning all the Greeks: — I grant 
them learning, the knowledge of many sciences; I do 
not deny that they have wit, fine genius, and eloquence; 

Term translated. 
36. Permission. 



132 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Anaccenosis tries another's mind, 37 
The better counsel of a friend to find. 

EXAMPLES. 

nay, if they lay claim to many other excellencies, I 
shall not contest their title : but this I must say, that 
nation never paid a proper regard to the religious sanc- 
tity of public evidence; and are total strangers to the 
obligation, authority, and importance of truth." No- 
thing more confounds an adversary than to grant him 
his whole argument, and, at the same time, either to 
show that it is nothing to the purpose, or to offer some- 
thing else that may invalidate it, as in the following 
example: "I allow that nobody was more nearly re- 
lated to the deceased than you; I grant that he was 
under some obligations to you; nay, that you have 
always been in friendly correspondence with each 
other : but what is all this to the last will and testa- 
ment?" Another example of this figure occurs in the 
eleventh chapter of Romans: "Thou wilt say, then, 
the branches were broken off that I might be grafted 
in. Well; because of unbelief they were broken off; 
and thou standest by faith. Be not high-minded, but 
fear." 

37. Cicero thus appeals to Piso in his oration for 
Caecina: "Suppose, Piso, that any person had driven 
you from your house by violence, how would you have 
behaved?" A similar appeal he makes use of in his 
oration for Rabirius: "But what could you have done 
in such a case, and at such a juncture ? — when to have 

Term translated. 
37. Communication. 



ELOCUTION. 133 

Antithesis doth change a syllable or letter, 38 
Or holds up contrasts as men think better.* 

EXAMPLES. 

sat still, or to have withdrawn, would have been cow- 
ardice; when the wickedness and fury of Saturninus 
had sent for you into the capitol, and the consuls had 
called you to protect the safety and liberty of your 
country? whose authority, whose voice, which party 
would you have followed ? and whose orders would you 
have chosen to obey?" So the prophet Malachi: "A 
son honoreth his father, and a servant his master. If 
I then be a father, where is mine honor? and if I be a 
master, where is my fear?" See Isa. v. 3, 4 ; Jer. xxiii. 
23; Luke xi. 19 ; 1 Cor. iv. 21; Gal. iv. 21. 

38. The following examples will illustrate this figure: 

" Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; 
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." 

"If Cato may be censured, severely indeed, but justly, 
for abandoning the cause of liberty, which he would 
not, however, survive, what shall we say of those who 
embrace it faintly, pursue it irresolutely, grow tired of 
it when they have much to hope, and give it up when 
they have nothing to fear." 

"For the wages of sin is death: but the gift of God 
is eternal life through Jesus Christ our Lord." 

Term translated. 
38. Opposition. 



* For Antithesis, as a grammatical figure, see distich 77. 

12 



134 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

In Oxymoron contradictions meet, 39 
And jarring epithets and subjects greet. 
Aporia, in words and actions, doubts; 40 
And with itself, what may be best, disputes. 

EXAMPLES. 

39. Cicero, in his first oration against Catiline, says: 
"But with regard to you, Catiline, the silence of the 
senate declares their approbation, their acquiescence 
amounts to a decree, and by saying nothing they pro- 
claim their consent." And Ovid says of Althea, that 
she was impiously pious. In like manner Cato said of 
Scipio Africanus, that "he was never less at leisure, 
than when he was at leisure ; nor less alone, than when 
alone." And St. Paul says: "But she that liveth in 
pleasure is dead while she liveth." 

40. Cicero, in his defence of Cluentius, says: "I 
know not which way to turn myself. Shall I deny the 
infamy thrown upon him, of bribing the judges ? can I 
say, the people were not told of it ? that it was not 
talked of in the court ? mentioned in the senate ? can 
I remove an opinion so deeply and long rooted in the 
minds of men ? It is not in my power. You, judges, 
must support his innocence, and rescue him from this 
calamity." Livy gives a very elegant example of this 
figure, in a speech of Scipio Africanus to his soldiers 
after a sedition: "I never thought I should have been 
at a loss in what manner to address my army. Not 
that I have applied myself more to words than things; 
but because I have been accustomed to the genius of 

Terms translated. 
39. A witty foolish saying 40. A doubting. 



ELOCUTION. 135 

How many Figures are there for moving the pas- 
sions ? 

Fifteen; Ecphonesis, Enantiosis, Aposiopesis, JPara- 
leipsis, Epanorthosis, Anastrophe, Asyndeton, Poly- 
syndeton, Periphrasis, Hypotyposis, Epiphonema, En- 
allage, Hyperbaton, Apostrophe, and Prosopopoeia. 

Define and exemplify the Figures for moving the 
passions. 

By Ecphonesis straight the mind is rais'd, 41 

When by a sudden flow of passion seiz'd. 

EXAMPLES. 

soldiers, having been trained up in the camp almost 
from my childhood. But I am in doubt what or how to 
speak to you, not knowing what name to give you. Shall 
I call you citizens, who have revolted from your country? 
Soldiers, who have disowned the authority of your 
general, and broken your military oath ? Enemies ? 
I perceive the mien, the aspect, and habit of citizens; 
but discern the actions, words, designs, and dispositions 
of enemies." 

An excellent example of Aporia is in the cxxxix 
Psalm: "Whither shall I go from thy spirit? or 
whither shall I flee from thy presence?" See also 
Phil. i. 22, 23; Lam. ii. 13; Kom. vii. 24, 25. 

41. Cicero, in his second Philippic, speaking of Pom- 
pey's house, which Mark Antony had purchased, thus 
addresses him: " Oh consummate impudence ! dare you 
go within those walls ? dare you venture over that vene- 
rable threshold, and show your audacious countenance 

Term translated. 
41. Exclamation. 



136 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Enantiosis poiseth diff'rent things, 42 
And words and sense as into balance brings. 

EXAMPLES. 

to the tutelar deities which reside there ?" And speak- 
ing of his banishment, from which he had been so 
honorably recalled, he says: " Oh mournful day to the 
senate and all good men ! calamitous to the senate, 
afflictive to me and my family; but to posterity glori- 
ous and worthy of admiration !" And in compliment 
to Cassar, he says: "0 admirable clemency! worthy of 
the greatest praise, the highest encomiums, and most 
lasting monuments !" It is frequently used by the 
sacred writers: as, " that I had the wings of a dove, 
that I might flee away and be at rest !" And again: 
" death, where is thy sting ! grave, where is thy 
victory!" So in St. Matthew: "My God! my God! 
why hast thou forsaken me ?" 

42. Cicero opposing the conduct of Yerres, when 
governor of Sicily, to that of Marcellus, who took 
Syracuse, the capital of that island, says: "Compare 
this peace with that war; the arrival of this governor 
with the victory of that general; his profligate troops 
with the invincible army of the other; the luxury of 
the former with the temperance of the latter: you will 
say that Syracuse was founded by him who took it, and 
taken by him who held it when founded." And in his 
oration for the Manilian law, speaking of Pompey, he 
says: "He waged more wars than others had read: 
conquered more provinces than others had governed: 

Term translated. 
42. Contrariety. 



ELOCUTION. 137 

Aposiopesis leaves imperfect sense; 43 
Yet such a silent pause speaks eloquence. 
A Paraleipsis cries, I leav't behind, 44 
I let it pass; tho' you the whole may find. 

EXAMPLES. 

and had been trained up from his youth to the art of 
war; not by the precepts of others, but by his own 
commands; not by miscarriages in the field, but by 
victories; not by campaigns, but by triumphs." So in 
the third chapter of Proverbs: " The wise shall inherit 
glory, but shame shall be the promotion of fools." 

43. The old man in Terence, when he was jealous 
that his servant obstructed his designs, uses this im- 
perfect, but threatening expression: "Whom, if I find." 
And Neptune, enraged that the winds should presume 
to agitate the sea without his permission, is represented 
by Virgil as addressing them in the following abrupt 
manner : 

"Whom I — but first I'll lay the storm." 

And Cicero, in a letter to Cassius, says - : "Brutus 
could scarcely support himself at Mutina; if he is 
safe, we have carried the day; but if — heaven avert 
the omen ! all must have recourse to you." His mean- 
ing is, "if Brutus should be defeated." So in St. 
John: "Now is my soul troubled; and what shall I 
say? Father, save me from this hour: but, for this 
cause came I unto this hour." See also 1 Kings xxi. 7; 
Psal. vi. 4; Luke xix. 42. 

44. Cicero, in his defence of Sextius, introduces his 

Terms translated. 
43. Suppression. 44. Omission. 

12* 



138 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Epanorthosis doth past words correct, 45 
And, only to enhance, seems to reject. 

EXAMPLES. 

character in the following manner, with a design of 
recommending him to the favor of the judges: "I 
might say many things of his liberality, kindness to 
his domestics, his command in the army, and modera- 
tion during his office in the province; but the honor of 
the state presents itself to my view, and, calling me to 
it, advises me to omit these lesser matters." There is 
an excellent example of this figure in St. Paul's epistle 
to Philemon: "I, Paul, have written it with my own 
hand; I will repay it: Albeit, I do not say to thee how 
thou owest unto me even thine own self besides." 

45. Cicero makes use of this figure in his oration for 
Milo: "Can you be ignorant, among the conversation 
of this city, what laws — if they are to be called laws, 
and not rather the firebrands of Rome, and the plagues 
of the commonwealth — this Clodius designed to fasten 
and fix upon us ?" Another example occurs in the fol- 
lowing passage of Cicero, in his defence of Plancius : 
"For what greater blow could those judges — if they 
are to be called judges, and not .rather parricides of 
their country, have given to the state, than when they 
banished that very man, who, when praetor, delivered 
the republic from a neighboring, and who, when con- 
sul, saved it from a civil, war?" So in St. Paul's 
first epistle to the Corinthians: "I labored more abun- 
dantly than they all: yet not i, but the grace of God, 

Term translated. 
45. Correction. 



ELOCUTION. 139 

Anastrophe makes words that first should go 46 
The last in place : verse oft, will have it so. 

EXAMPLES. 

which was with me." See Gal. iv. 9; Isa. xlix. 15; 
Luke xi. 27, 28; Eom. viii. 34. 

46. Milton begins his Paradise Lost by a beautiful 
example of this figure: 

Of man's first disobedience, and the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Brought death into the world, and all our woe, 
With loss of Eden, till one greater man 
Restore us, and regain the blissful seat, 
Sing heav'nly muse! that on the sacred top 
Of Oreb, or of Sinai, didst inspire 
That shepherd who first taught the chosen seed, 
In the beginning how the heavens and earth 
Rose out of chaos. 

The natural order of the words in this passage would 
have been, Heavnly muse, sing of maris first disobe- 
dience, &c. 

Another example occurs in the eleventh. book of the 
same poem: 

The angelic blast 
Filled all the regions : from their blissful bow'rs 
Of amaranthine shade, fountain, or spring, 
By the waters of life, where'er they sat 
In fellowship of joy, the sons of light 
Hasted, resorting to the summons high, 
And took their seats." 

The natural order of the words would be, the sons of 

Term translated. 
46. Inversion. 



140 THE ART OF RHETORIC, 

Asyndeton, or, (which the same implies,) 47 
Dialyton the cop'lative denies. 
In Polysyndeton conjunctions flow, 48 
And every word its cop'lative must show. 

EXAMPLES. 

light hasted from their blissful bow'rs. See Eph. iii. 
20, 21. 

47. Longinus says, that "sentences, artfully divested 
of conjunctions, drop smoothly down, and the periods 
are poured along in such a manner that they seem to 
outstrip the very thought of the speaker." "Then," 
says Xenophon, " closing their shields together, they 
were pushed, they fought, they slew, they were slain." 
The hurry and distraction of Dido's spirits, at iEneas's 
departure, are visible from the abrupt and precipitate 
manner in which she commands her servants to endea- 
vor to stop him: 

Haste, haul my galleys out; pursue the foe; 
Bring flaming brands, set sail and quickly row. 

And St. Paul, in his first Epistle to the Corinthians, 
says: "Charity envieth not; charity vaunteth not 
itself, is not puffed up, doth not behave itself un- 
seemly, seeketh not her own, is not easily provoked, 
thinketh no evil." See 1 Tim. iii. 2, 3; Rom. i. 29-31; 
Rom. iii. 11, 12; 2 Cor. vi. 4-10. 

48. This figure adds weight and gravity to an ex- 
pression, and makes what is said to appear with an air 
of solemnity, and, by retarding the course of the sen- 
Terms translated. 

47. Omission of a copulative. 48. Many copulatives. 



ELOCUTION. 141 

Periphrasis of words doth use a train, 49 
Intending one thing only to explain. 

EXAMPLES. 

tence, gives the mind an opportunity to consider and 
reflect upon every part distinctly. Thus, Demosthenes 
encourages the Athenians to prosecute the war against 
Philip, king of Macedon, because "they had ships, and 
men, and money, and stores, and all other things which 
might contribute to the strength of the city, in greater 
number and plenty than in former times." A beauti- 
ful instance of this figure occurs in the eighth chapter 
of Romans: "For I am persuaded, that neither death, 
nor life, nor angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor 
things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor 
depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate 
us from the love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our 
Lord." See also Acts i. 13; Gal. iv. 10; Psal. xviii. 2. 
49. Longinus says: "For as in music an important 
word is rendered more sweet by the divisions which are 
run harmoniously upon it : so a Periphrasis sweetens a 
discourse carried on in propriety of language, and con- 
tributes very much to the ornament of it, especially if 
there be no jarring or discord in it, but every part be 
judiciously and musically tempered." Longinus gives 
the following example of this figure from Plato, in the 
beginning of his funeral oration: "We have now dis- 
charged the last duties we owe to these our departed 
friends, who, thus provided, make the fatal voyage. 
They have been conducted publicly on their way by 

Term translated. 
49. Circumlocution. 



142 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Hypotyposis to the eye contracts 50 

Things, places, persons, times, affections, acts. 

EXAMPLES. 

the whole body of the city, and, in a private capacity, 
by their parents and relations." Here he calls death 
"the fatal voyage," and discharging the funeral offices, 
a public conducting of them by their country. And 
Cicero, in his defence of Milo, instead of saying that 
Milo's slaves had hilled Clodius, uses the following 
Periphrasis, in order to conceal the horror of the mur- 
der: "The servants of Milo acted upon this occasion 
without the orders, without the knowledge, without the 
presence of their master, as every man would wish his 
own servants should act in like circumstances." So in 
the first book of kings: "I go the way of all the 
earth;" that is, I die. See 2 Pet. i. 14; Josh, xxiii. 
14; Mark xiv. 25; Job xviii. 14; John xxi. 7, 24. 

50. Cicero, in order to prevail with the senate to 
direct the execution of those conspirators with Catiline, 
who were then in prison, paints that horrible design in 
the strongest colors: "Methinks I see this city, the 
light of the world, and citadel of all nations, suddenly 
falling into one fire; I perceive heaps of miserable 
citizens buried in their ruined country; the counte- 
nance and fury of Cethegus raging in your slaughter, 
presents itself to my view." And in two lines he thus 
paints the anger of Verres: "Inflamed with a mad and 
wicked intention, he came into the forum; his eyes 
sparkled with rage, and cruelty appeared staring in 

Term translated. 
50. Representation, 



ELOCUTION. 143 

Epiphonema makes a final clause, 51 
When narratives and proofs afford a cause. 

EXAMPLES. 

every feature of his face." See Psal. cvii. 25-29 ; 
Prov. xxiii. 29; Job. xxxix. 19-25. 

51. Virgil, in the first book of his iEneid, says: 
" Declare, Muse ! the causes why he suffered; what 
deity he had offended, and why the queen of heaven 
was provoked to doom a man of such distinguished 
piety to struggle with a series of calamities, to en- 
counter so many hardships: dwells such resentment in 
heavenly minds?" And having, in the same book, de- 
scribed the calamities which iEneas and his associates 
suffered previous to their settlement in Latium, he 
says: "So vast a work it was to found the Roman 
state." When Cicero has shown that recourse should 
never be had to force and violence, except in cases of 
the greatest necessity, he concludes with the following 
remark: "Thus to think is prudence; to act, fortitude; 
both to think and act, perfect and consummate virtue." 
And having observed, in his Essay on Old Age, that 
all men are solicitous to live to an advanced age, but 
uneasy under it when attained, he says: "So great is 
their inconstancy, folly, and perverseness." So in the 
book of Psalms: "Kiss the son, lest he be angry, and 
ye perish from the way, when his wrath is kindled but 
a little. Blessed are all they that put their trust in 
him" See also Matth. xxii. 13, 14; Acts xix. 19, 20. 

Term translated. 
51. Acclamation. 



144 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Enallage doth alter person, tense, 52 

Mood, gender, number, on the least pretence.* 

EXAMPLES. 

52. "Change of persons" says Longinus, "has a 
wonderful effect, in setting the very things before our 
eyes, and making the hearer think himself actually 
present and concerned in dangers, when he is only at- 
tentive to a recital of them." So in the fifteenth book 
of Homer's Iliad: 

No force could vanquish them, thou wouldst have thought, 
No toil fatigue, so furiously they fought. 

"When you introduce things past" says Longinus, 
"as actually present, and in the moment of action, you 
no longer relate, but display, the very action before the 
eyes of your readers." Thus Xenophon, in the seventh 
book of his Cyropsedia, says: "A soldier falls down 
under Cyrus's horse, and being trampled under foot, 
wounds him in the belly with his sword. The horse, 
impatient of the wound, flings about and throws off 
Cyrus. He falls to the ground." Longinus also says 
that " Plurals reduced and contracted into singulars, 
have sometimes much grandeur and magnificence." 
Thus Demosthenes, in his oration on the crown, says: 
"Besides, all Peloponnesus was at that time rent into 
factions." Instead of "all the inhabitants of Pelo- 
ponnesus were at that time rent into factions." A re- 
Term translated. 
52. A change of order. 



* Changes of gender and mood do not fall under the province of 
the English tongue. • 



ELOCUTION. 145 

Hyperhaton makes words and sense to run 53 
In order that's disturbed; such rather shun. 
Apostrophe, from greater themes or less, 54 
Doth turn aside to make a short address. 

EXAMPLES. 

markable instance of this figure is in Psalm cxxviii. 1, 2. 
" Blessed are all they that fear the Lord and walk in 
his ways. For thou shalt eat the labor of thy hands: 
happy shalt thou be, and it shall be well with thee." 
See Prov. viii. 3, 4; Luke v. 14. 

53. There is a fine Hyperbaton in the fifth book of 
Paradise Lost: 

Sweet is the breath of morn, her rising sweet, 
With charm of earliest birds : pleasant the sun, 
When first on this delightful land he spreads 
His orient beams, on herb, tree, fruit, and flow'r, 
Glist'ring with dew : fragrant the fertile earth 
After soft show'rs : and sweet the coming on 
Of grateful evening mild : then silent night, 
With this her solemn bird, and this fair moon, 
And these the gems of heav'n, her starry train. 
But neither breath of morn, when she ascends, 
With charms of earliest birds : nor herb, fruit, flow'r, 
Glist'ring with dew : nor fragrance after show'rs : 
Nor grateful ev'ning mild : nor silent night, 
With this her solemn bird : nor walk by noon, 
Or glitt'ring starlight, without thee is sweet. 

Another example of this figure is in Ephes. ii. 1, 5. 
"And you being dead; even you being dead hath he 
quickened." 

54. Quintilian says : " The discourse, turned from the 

Terms translated. 
53. A passing over. 54. Address, or turning aside. 

13 



146 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

EXAMPLES. 

judge, and therefore called Apostrophe, is of singular 
efficacy, whether we attack the adversary : as, ' Tubero, 
what was your naked sword doing in the battle of 
Pharsalia?' ' "Or, turn to some invocation, as, <0 ye 
Alban monuments and groves!'" "Or, implore the 
assistance of the laws to make the infractor of them 
more odious, as, '0 Porcian and Sempronian laws !' ' 
Demosthenes, in his oration on the crown, says: "But 
it cannot be ! No, my countrymen! it cannot be that 
you have acted wrong in encountering clanger bravely, 
for the liberty and safety of all Greece. No ! I swear 
by those generous souls of ancient times, who exposed 
their lives at Marathon ! By those who stood arrayed 
at Plataea ! By those who encountered the Persian fleet 
at Salamis, who fought at Artemisium! By all those 
illustrious sons of Athens, whose remains lie deposited 
in the public monuments !" Ossian abounds with beau- 
tiful Apostrophes. Thus: "Weep on the rocks of roar- 
ing winds, maid of Inistore ! bend thy fair head over 
the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, when 
it moves in a sunbeam at noon over the silence of Mor- 
ven! He is fallen! thy youth is low; pale beneath 
the sword of Cuthullin!" Virgil sometimes uses this 
figure : 

Nor Pantheus! thee, thy mitre, nor the bands 
Of awful Phoebus, saved from impious hands. 

And in another place: "Thus he possessed the gold by 
violence. cursed thirst of gold! what wickedness 
dost thou not influence men's minds to perpetrate?" 
So in the prophet Hosea: "The wild beast shall tear 



ELOCUTION. 147 

Prosopopoeia a new person feigns, 55 

And to inanimates speech and reason deigns. 

What other figures are sometimes used by Rheto- 
ricians ? 

JPleonasmus, Ellipsis, Synathrcesmus, Hendiadis, 
Kysteron, Hypallage, ITellenismus, JEtiology, Tmesis, 
Antimeria, Antimetahole, Paradiastole, Upimone, and 
Antiptosis. 

EXAMPLES. 

them. 0! Israel thou hast destroyed thyself." See 
Gen. xlix. 17, 18; Psal. xxviii. 8, 9; Isa. i. 2. 

55. There is a great propensity in human nature, 
under emotion, to animate all objects. When we say 
"the ground thirsts for rain," or "the earth smiles with 
plenty;" when we speak of "frowning disdain," or 
u meek-eyed contentment;" such expressions show the 
facility with which the mind can accommodate the pro- 
perties of living creatures to things which are inani- 
mate, or to abstract conceptions of its own formation. 
Thus Cicero, in his first oration against Catiline, says : 
"If my country, which is far dearer to me than my 
own life, if all Italy, if the whole republic, should say 
to me: Marcus Tullius, what are you doing?" And, 
in the same oration: "Your country, Catiline, reasons 
with you, and thus tacitly addresses herself to you: 
not an atrocious crime has been perpetrated for many 
years but has had you for its author." Philoctetes, in 
Sophocles, pours out to the rocks and caves of Lemnos 
the following complaint: 

Term translated. 
55. The fiction of a person. 



148 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Define and exemplify these figures? 

A Pleonasmus has more words than needs; 56 

And, to augment the emphasis, exceeds. 

EXAMPLES. 

mountains, rivers, rocks, and savage herds, 
To you I speak ! to you alone I now 
Must breathe my sorrows ! you are wont to hear 
My sad complaints, and I will tell you all 
That I have suffered from Achilles' son ! 

The impatience of Adam to know his origin, is sup- 
posed to prompt the personification of all the objects 
he beheld, in order to procure information: 

Thou sun, said I, fair light! 
And thou, enlightened earth, so fresh and gay ! 
Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, 
And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, 
Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here ? 

So Isaiah xxxy. 1: "The wilderness and the solitary 
place shall he glad for them: and the desert place shall 
rejoice, and blossom as the rose." See Josh. xxiv. 27; 
Judg. ix. 8, &c; Psal. xcviii. 8; Pro v. viii. 1, &c. ; 
Prov. ix. 1, &c. 

56. This figure is sometimes used for the purpose of 
rendering an expression more emphatical: as, "Where 
in the world is he?" At other times it is designed to 
ascertain the truth of what is said. Thus, the servant 
in Terence, when the truth of what he related was called 
in question, replied: "It is certainly so; I saw it with 
these very eyes." So in Isa. vi. 10. "Lest they see 
with their eyes, and hear with their ears," &c. 

Term translated. 
56. A Superfluity. 



ELOCUTION. 149 

Ellipsis leaves a word or sentence out, 57 
When the conciseness causes not a doubt. 
A Synatlircesmus sums up various things, 58 
And as into one heap together brings. 
Hendiadis, for adjectives doth choose 59 
Their proper substantives themselves to use. 

EXAMPLES. 

57. Quintilian says: "The retrenched word is suffi- 
ciently understood by the rest as in Coelius against 
Antony." — "The Greeks all in confusion with joy." 
"As soon as we have heard these words, we perceive 
that 'began to be' is understood." So in Acts vi. 2: 
"Then the twelve (i. e. apostles) called the multitude of 
the disciples unto them." 

58. The following example is from the third Satire 
of Juvenal: "He is a grammarian, rhetorician, geome- 
trician, painter, anointer, soothsayer, rope-dancer, phy- 
sician, magician; a hungry Grecian knows everything." 
And Dido, in Virgil, beholding, from her watch tower, 
the departure of the fleet of iEneas, says: "I might 
have hurled firebrands into his camp, filled the hatches 
with flames, extirpated the son, the sire, with the whole 
race, and flung myself upon the pile." There is an- 
other instance of this figure in Cicero's Oration for 
Marcellus: " The centurion has no share in this honor, 
the lieutenant none, the cohort none, the troop none." 
See Rom. i. 29, 31. 

59. Virgil, in his second Georgic, says: "This will 
be prolific of grapes, this of such liquor as we pour 

Terms translated. 
57. A defect. 58. A gathering together. 59. One into two. 

13* 



150 THE ART OF RHETORIC, 

Hysteron doth misplace both words and sense 60 
And makes the last, what's first by just pretence. 
Hypallage doth cases oft transpose: 61 
A liberty that's never used in prose, 

EXAMPLES. 

forth in libation from gold and cups;" that is, from 
golden cups. And in his third book: "Nor would I 
dislike her if streaked with white and spots;" that is, 
with white spots. 

60. iEneas, in Virgil, perceiving that the Greeks had 
taken the city of Troy, thus addresses his associates: 
" Let us die, and rush into the thickest of our armed 
foes." And in the ninth book of the iEneid, Nisus 
uses this abrupt exclamation, which admirably marks 
his disorder and perturbation of mind: "On me, on me, 
here am I who did the mischief; turn your swords 
on me, Rutulians." So in Terence's Self-tormentor, 
act iii. scene i.; "He is well and alive." Homer fre- 
quently uses this figure; hence, says Cicero, in one of 
his epistles to Atticus: "I will answer you, like 
Homer, by Hysteron Proteron." An instance of this 
figure occurs in the book of Psalms: "Behold, he tra- 
vaileth with iniquity, and hath conceived mischief." 

61. Ovid says: "My mind induces me to speak of 
forms changed into new bodies;" for bodies changed 
into new forms; and in the third Eclogue of Virgil: 
"Nor have I yet applied my lips to them," for, nor 
have I yet applied them to my lips. 

Terms translated. 
60. This figure is commonly called " Hysteron Proteron," which signi- 
fies putting the last first. 61. A change. 



ELOCUTION. 151 

'Tis Ilellenismus, when we speak or write, 62 
In the like style and phrase as Greeks indite. 
JEtiology gives every theme a reason; 63 
And, with convincing arguments, doth season. 
By Tmesis words divided oft are seen, 64 
And others 'twixt the parts do intervene. 
By Antimeria, for one part of speech 65 
Another's put which equal sense doth teach. 
Antimetabole puts chang'd words again 66 
By contraries; some beauty to explain. 

EXAMPLES. 

62. "I kept him from to die;" that is, from death. 

63. Despise pleasure; for pleasure bought with pain 
is hurtful. 

64. Milton, in the second book of his Paradise Lost, 

says: 

And in what place soe'er 
Thrive under evil, and work ease out of pain, 
Through labor and endurance." 

And in St. John: "For what things soever he doeth ? 
these also doeth the Son likewise." 

65. He is new, for newly, come home. 

66. Quintilian gives an instance of this figure from 
Cicero's oration for Sextus Roscius: "For though he 
is master of so much art as to seem the only person 
alive who is fit to appear upon the stage; yet he is 
possessed of such noble qualities, that he seems to be 

Terms translated. 
62. A Grsecism, or Greek phrase. 63. Giving a reason. 

64. A division. 65. One part for another. 

66. Changing by contraries. 



152 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Paradiastole explains aright 67 
Things in an opposite and different light. 
Epimone repeats the same words o'er 68 
At intervals, to move affection more. 
By Antiptosis you may freely place 69 
One (if as proper) for another case. 

EXAMPLES. 

the only man alive who may seem worthy never to ap - 
pear there." 

So in Romans vii. 19: "For the good that I would I 
do not: but the evil which I would not, that I do." 

67. "Virtue may be overshadowed, but not over- 
whelmed." And St. Paul, in 2 Cor. iv. 8, 9, says: 
"We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed: we 
are perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted, but not 
forsaken; cast down, but not destroyed." 

68. Virgil, in his eighth Eclogue, repeats this sen- 
tence eight times : "Begin with me, my pipe, Msenalian 
strains." And in the same Eclogue he repeats the fol- 
lowing one nine times: "My charms, bring Daphnis 
from the town, bring Daphnis home to me." Theocri- 
tus, in like manner, in his first Idyl, repeats this verse 
fourteen times: "Begin, Muses, begin the pastoral 
song." See Gen. xviii. 24-32; John xxi. 15-17; Matth. 
xii. 31, 32. 

69. This figure is peculiar to the ancient languages: as 

Urbem (pro urbs) quam statuo, vestra est.— *Virg. 

Terms translated. 
67. Contradistinction. 68. Persisting in the same words. 

69. A case put for a case. 



ELOCUTION. 153 

Figures of Orthography. 
Prosthesis, to the front of words doth add TO 
Letters or syllables they never had. 
Aphceresis from the beginning takes, 71 
What properly a part of the word makes. 
Syncope leaves part of the middle out; 72 
Which causeth oft of case and tense to doubt. 

EXAMPLES. 

So in the ninth book of Homer's Iliad: 

EvravQa, r^s^sts, <ptXog. 

And in the third book of the Odyssey: 

*Sl <$>jXoj, a as soXira xccxov aai avahxtv saSs-dat. 

The word $aoj, in both examples, is put, by this 
figure, for $t%s. 

70. Milton, in the first book of his Paradise Lost, says: 

And what resounds 
In fable or romance of Uther's son, 
Begirt with British and Armoric knights. 

And Spenser: 

But ah ! Maecenas is yclad in clay, 
And great Augustus long ago is dead, 

71. Milton says: 

'Twixt upper, nether, and surrounding fires; 

72. O'er heaps of ruins stalked the stately hind. 

Terms translated. 
70. Adding to. 71. Taking from. 72. Cutting out. 



154 THE AKT OF RHETORIC. 

Epenthesis to the middle adds one more 73 

Than what the word could justly claim before. 

Apocope cuts off a final letter 74 

Or syllable, to make the verse run better. 

A Paragoge adds unto the end; 75 

Yet not the sense, but measure to amend. 

Metathesis a letter's place doth change, 76 

So that the word appears not new or strange. 

Antithesis doth change a syllable or letter, 77 

Or holds up contrasts, as men think better. 

Figures of Prosody. 
EctMipsis M in th' end hath useless fixt, 78 
When vowel or H begins the word that's next. 
By Synalcepha final vowels give way, 79 
That those in front of following words may stay. 

EXAMPLES. 

73. Blackamoor for Blackmoore. 

74. Rush thro' the thickets, down the valleys sweep. 

75. My ain kind deary. 

76. Crudle, for curdle, is used both by Spenser and 
Shakspeare. 

77. In vain he spoke, for ah! the sword addrest 
With ruthless rage had pierced his lovely breast. 

78. Si vita' inspicias, for Si vitam inspicias. 

79. Si vis anim' esse beatus, for Si vis animo esse 
beatus. 

Terms translated. 

73. Interposition. 74. A cutting off. 

75. Producing, or making longer. 76. Transposition. 

77. Opposition. 78. A striking out. 79. A mingling together. 



ELOCUTION. 155 

A Systole long syllables makes short; 80 

The cramp'd and puzzl'd poet's last resort. 

Diastole short syllables prolongs; 81 

But this, to right the verse the accent "wrongs. 

Synceresis, whenever it indites, 82 

Still into one two syllables unites. 

Dicer esis one into two divides; 83 

By which the smoother measure gently glides. 

EXAMPLES. 

80. Steterunt, for Steterunt. 

81. Naufragia, for Naufragia. 

82. Alveo, a dissyllable, for Alveo, a trissyllable. 

83. Evoluisset, for evolvisset. 

Terms translated. 

80. A shortening. 81. Lengthening. 

82. A contraction. 83. A division. 



156 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 



TROPI PROPRII QUATUOR. 



Dat propria similem translata 3Ietaphora vocem : 1 

EXEMPLA. 

1. Sunt varise Metaphors. Qusedam ab animatis ad 
animata: ut, 

Quid enim hie meus frater ab arte adjuvari potuit, 
cum a Philippo interrogatus, quid latraret fur em se 
videre respondit? — Cic. de Orat., lib. ii. 54. 

Ka» 6»7T£v avroi; TIogivQevrts iira.ii rn akwTtwi ravrn. — Luc. xiii. 32. 

Et ait illis : Euntes dicite vulpi illi. 

Alise ab inanimatis ad inanimata : ut, 
Sic fatur lacrymans, classique immittit habenas. — Virg. 

Aiiae ab inanimatis ad animata : ut, 

— Aut geminos, duo fulmina belli 

Scipiadas. — Virg. 

Otrros V Aj«f ts-ri weXw^oj e^xo; A^aicuv. — Horn. 

Hie vero Ajax est ingens propugnaculum Achivoram. 

Postremo ab animatis ad inanimata : ut, 

Indomitique Dahse, et pontem indignatus Araxes. — Virg. 

*£!<; <pa.ro giynfsv h KaXu^o;, foa Staoav, 
Ka» f*tv (pavnff-ai;, sttso, TTTSfOEVTa <ir£oe-tiv$a. — Horn. 

Derivation. 
1. A |t*6Ta<j>gf», transfero. 



ELOCUTION. 157 

Atque Metonymia imponit nova nomina rebus. 2 
Confundit totum cum parte Synecdoche saepe. 3 

EXEMPLA. 

Sic dixit : autem cohorruit Calypso, eximia inter deas, 
Et ipsum compellans verbis alatis allocutus est. 

2. Sunt etiam varise Metonymise. Sic causa pro 
effectu: ut, 

At rubicunda Ceres medio succiditur SBStu. — Virg. 

Aeysi awrao 'A^aajO.* 'E^aert Mootrsa, nai T«f <rr£o$rna.q. — Luc. xvi. 29. 

Ait illi Abrahamus : habent Mosen et prophetas. 
E contra effectus pro causa : ut, 

— Aut geminos, duo fulmina belli 
Scipiadas, cladem Libyce? — Virg. 

Mascenas, atavis edite regibus, 

O et prcesidium, et duke decus meum ! — Hor. 

Aut subjectum pro adjuncto : ut, 

Ille impiger hausit 
Spumantem pateram, et pleno se proluit auro.— Virg. 

Turo ecTt to o-wfjta. fxa, xai t«to sari to aifta, /wa. — Marc. xiv. 22, 24. 

Hoc est corpus meum, et hie est sanguis meus. 
Postremo adjunctum pro subjecto: ut, 
Crateras magnos statuunt, et vina coronant. — Virg. 
En Priamus. — Id. 

3. Synecdoche est simili modo varia. Aut enim ex 
genere speciem intelligimus : ut, UogsvOsvtss si? tov xocs/xov 

artavT'a, xrjgv%af£ to svayyE^vov rtaGq ivj x-ti$ii. — MaVC. XVI. 

15. Euntes in mundum universum, predicate evange- 
lium omni creature. 

Aut e contra ex specie genus: ut, Tov agt ov qpa* tov 

Derivationes. 
2. A fABrovofxa^v, transnomino. 3. A e-wsxS'e%o j uai, comprehendo. 

14 



158 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Ironia jocis contraria signat acutis. 4 

EXEMPLA. 

sniovaiov 605 9ju.1v Gijixegov. — Matt. vi. 11. Panem nostrum 
quotidianum da nobis hodie. 

Praeterea ex toto "partem: ut, r^av tov xvgiov px, xao ovx 
018a 7tov sOvjxav avtov. — Joan, xx. 13. Sustulerunt Do- 
minum meum, nee scio ubi posuerunt eum. 

Aut ex parte totum: ut, Anima quae peccat, ipsa 
morietur. — JEzech. xviii. 4. Omnes aniniae quae ingres- 
sae sunt cum Jacobo in Egyptum sexaginta sex erant. — 
Gen. xlvi. 26. 

Aut ab plurali singular em: ut, To 8* avto xcu 60 %fjatat, 

01 avatavgioQevtss avfu, u>vst,8i£ov avtco. JxLatt. XXV11. 44.^ 

Id ipsum autem etiam latrones qui crucifixi erant cum 
eo, exprobrabant ei* 

jE contra ex singnlari pliiralem: ut, 

ETTit Tjojjij t£jov TTToXiefigsv btts^os. — Horn, 

Postquam Trojae sacrum oppidum devastavit. — (Neque 
ille enim solus, sed una cum aliis Groscis Trojam 
evertit.) 

4. Curasti probe. — Ter. And., act v. sc. ii. Ad Q. 
Metellum praetorero. venisti: a quo repudiatus, ad soda- 
lem tuum virum optimum, Marcum Marcellum, demi- 
grasti. — Cie. in Cat. 

Novum crimen, C. Caesar, et ante hunc diem inau- 
ditum propinquus meus, ad te Q. Tubero detulit, Q. 
Ligarium in Africa fuisse. — Oic. pro Lig. 

bellum magnopere pertimescendum, cum banc sit 

Derivatio. 
4. Ab e^ei^ca;svofji.ai, dissimulo. 



ELOCUTION. 159 

Insultans hosti illudit Sarcasmus amare. 5 
Hostili mordens Diasyrmus scommate laedit 6 
Dat Oharientismus pro duris mollia verba. 7 
Asteismus jocus urbanus sen scomma facetum est. 8 

EXEMPLA. 

habiturus Catilina scortatorum cohortem prsetoriam ! 
Instruite nunc, Quirites, contra has tarn prseclaras Ca- 
tilinae copias vestra prsesidia, vestrosque exercitus. — die. 
in Oat. 

Ut ludificans eos Elija dicer et, clamate voce magna 
quando quidem deus est, nam colloquium, aut nam in- 
sectatio est ei, aut nam iter est faciendum ei: fortasse 
dormit, ut evigilet. — Megum, lib. prior, cap. xviii. 27. 

Tots s^Erac Tt^oj Tfovs [xaOrjtas avtov, #a& faysc avtot$ Ka- 
devBefe to %oi7iov xat, avartavsaOs. Matt. XXvi. 45. Tunc 

venit ad discipulos suos, et dicit illis : Dormite eceterum, 
et requiescite. 

5. Satia, te inquit, sanguine quern sitisti, cuj usque 
insatiabilis semper fuisti, — Just. lib. i. cap. 8. 

Xacge, o jSacrasvs Ivw lovBaiav.-—3£att. xxvii. 29, 

Gaude, rex Judgeorum, 

6. Proinde tona eloquio, solitum tibi, meque timoris 
Argue tu, Drance, quando tot stragis acervos 
Tuecrorum tua dextra dedit, passimque tropeeis 
Insignos agros. — Virg, 

7. Bona verba quaeso. — Ter Jlnd., act i. scene 2. 

— Ne ssevi magna Sacerdos. — Virg, 

8. Qui Bavium non odit amet tua carmina, Maevi ; 
Atque idem jungat vulpes, et mulgeat hircos. — Id. 

Derivationes. 
5. A 0-a.^na^a), carnes detraho, vel irrideo. 6. A hao-vgai, convitior. 
7. A x*£ievTi£o[Aai } jocor. 8. Ab aarsio;, urbanus. 



160 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Durior improprige est Catachresis abusio vocis. 9 
Extenuans, augensve, excedit Hyperbole verum. 10 
Voce tropos plures nectit Metalepsis in una. 11 

EXEMPLA. 

9. Id star mentis equum divina Palladis arte 
JEdificant. — Virg. 

Hie mini, dum teneras defendo a frigore myrtos 
Vir gregis ipse caper deerraverat. — Id, 

Olentis uxores mariti. — Hor. 
Kai £7t£6t^£^a fasrtttv tv^v ty&vijv r.ti$ fXa/Ujfft fist fp.8.— 

Apoe. i. 12. 

Et conversus sum videre voeem quae loquebatur cum 
me. 

Mn xai ti xaxov arCu'Kavs-coixiv tv; <p\vagiag. — Luc. Dial. 
Ke lucremur aliquod etiam mali ex garrulitate. 

SI r:ays rtov Xevhoov aiycev axs^. — Tlieoc. Idyl. viii. 49. 
hirce albarum caprarum vir. 

10. Hinc atque hinc vastse rapes, geminique minantur 
In ccelum scopuli. — Virg. 

— ipse arduus, altaque pulsat 
Sidera. — Id. 

Aeunors^i j^iove?, Seittv £' avepoinv o/xoiot. — Horn. 
Hi candore nivem superant, cursuque aquilonem. 

Aygov £i%' s\a.TTO) yvv zyjivy ag STTtc-roXrig 
ActKooyiHYiq. — Longhl. 

Agrum habuit kabentem in se terrain minorem epistola 
Laconica. 

11. Felix heunimium felix! si litora tantum 
Nunquam Dardanias tetigissent nostra carinse. — Virg. 
Fuit Ilium et ingens gloria Dardanidum. — Hor. 

Derivationes. 
9. A Kctra^aojUM, abutor. 10. Ab iwrs#£aM&), supero. 

11. A {s.tta'ku[jt.Qa.voo i transumo. 



ELOCUTION. 161 

Contimiare tropos solet Allegoria plures. 12 
JEnigma obscuris involvit sensa loquelis. 13 
Prsemonet experto bene nota Parcemia dicto. 14 
Personis aliud facit Antonomasia nomen. 15 

EXEMPLA. 

12. O navis, referent in mare te novi 
Fluctus ? O quid agis ? Fortiter occupa 
Portum, &c. — Hor. 

Equidem cseteras tempestates et procellas in illis dun- 
taxat fluctibus concionum semper putavi Miloni esse 
subeundas. — Oic. pro Mil. 

Sine Cerere et Baccho friget Venus. — Ter. 

Sed nos immensum spatiis confecimus gequor 

Et jam tempus equum fumantia solvere colla. — Virg. 

13. Die quibus in terris, et eris mihi magnus Apollo, 
Tres pateat cceli spatium non amplius ulnas. — Jd. 
Die quibus in terris, inscripti nomina regum 
Nascantur flores. — Id. 

14. Lupum auribus teneo. — Ter. 

Later em la vein* — Id. 

15. — Divum pater atque hominum. — Virg. 
Irus est et subito, qui modo Croesus erat. — Ov. 
Qui Curios simulant et Bacchanalia vivunt. — Juv. 

7ta^aTfs-ro , K^>]ix£va. — Longin. 

Velut (praeter innuniera alia) etiam ilia, quae de 
Aloidis a poeta sunt audacia felici dicta. 

Derivationes. 
12. Ab aWnyo^oo, aliud dico. 13. Ab amrru, obscure loquor. 

14. A 7ra.%oifjt.ia£o{A.a,i, proverbialiter loquor. 

15. Ab cart, pro, et ovofj.it fa nomino. 

14* 



162 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Fortius affirmat Litotes adversa negando. 16 
A sonitu voces Onomatopoeia fingit. 17 
Oppositas rebus voces Antiphrasis aptat. 18 

De Figuris. 

Fignrce Dietionis ejusdam soni. 
Diver sis membris frontem dat Anaphora eandem. 19 

EXEMPLA. 

16. Non laudo; id est Reprehendo. — Ter. And. 

— Dabitur, Trojane, quod optas : 
Munera nee sperno. — Virg. 

Est, qui nee veteris pocula Massici 
Spernit, (id est, magnopere amat.) — Hoi'. 

AM, ax sv toi$ riTisiosiv avtuv svSoxqasv o 0eoj* xafsaf^O^cav 
-}a£ iv fqsgqpa. 1 Co?'. X. 5. 

Sed non in pluribus eorum probavit Deus : prostrati 
sunt enini in deserto. 

17. Bombalio, clangor, stridor, taratantara, murmur. 

Aiy%e &io$, vsvg* (xiy 1&X&V, xKto £' OiuToq 

oZvC&Xmq. — Horn. 
Striduit arcus, nervus autem • valde sonuit, saliitque sagitta acutam 
habens cuspid em. 

Aou7T)j'<rEV h irzcrm aga^na* h tlvyi ett' avreo. — Id. 
Fragorem vero edidit cadens, sonitumque dedere arma super ipsum. 

18. Lueus, a luceo, significat nemus opacum. Bel- 
turn, a bellus, a, um, quod minime sit bellum. Fata 
dicuntur JParcw, quia nemini par cunt. 

19. Nihilne nocturnum prsesidium palatii, nihil urbis 

Derivationes. 

16. A Xjtoj, tenuis. 17. Ab ovo/ma , nomen facio. 

18. Ab a\n<p£afa per contrarium loquor. 19. Ab a'.afsga), refero. 



ELOCUTION. 163 

Unum diversis finem dat Upistrophe membris. 20 
Ineipit et finit pariter duo Symploce membra. 21 

EXEMPLA. 

vigiliae, nihil timor populi, nihil consensus bonorum 
omnium, nihil hie munitissimus habendi senatus locus, 
nihil horum, ora vultusque moverunt ? — Cic. in Cat. 

Hie gelidi fontes, hie mollia prata, Lycori, 

Hie nemus: hie ipso tecum consumerer sevo. — Virg. 

Te, dulcis conjux, te solo in litore secum, 

Te veniente die, te decedente canebat. — >Id. 

N<o£y?, £' av IvpriQev ayev r^sis vnaq eta-a;, 
Ht?eue Ay\aw{ &" vio; } Xa^onoio t' avaXTO?* 
Nfgeu?, oq HaKkia-roq avng vvo IXjov v\6e. — Horn. 
. Nireas tres Syma naves adduxit et ipse, 
Nireus Aglaia Charopoque potente creatus, 
Nireus, quo Trojam venit, non pulchrior alter. 

20. Dofetis tres exercitus populi Roman"! interfectos; 
interfecit Antonius : desideratis clarissimos cives ; eos- 
que eripuit vobis Antonius: auctoritas hujus ordinis 
afflicta est; afflixit Antonius. — Qic. in M. Ant. 

Nam que ego, crede mihi, si te modo pontus haberet, 
Te sequerer, conjux et me quoque pontus haberet. 

21. Quis eos postulavit? Appius: quis produxit? 
Appius. — Cic. pro Mil. 

Quis legem tulit ? Rullus: quis majorem populi par- 
tem suffragiis privavit? Rullus: quis comitiis prsefuit ? 
idem Rullus. — Cic. 

Quam bene Caune, tuo poteram nurus esse parenti! 
Quam bene, Caune, meo poteras gener esse parenti.— -Ov. 

Derivationes. 

20. Ab E7nsrTg£<}>», converto. 21. A «/juwXsx«, connecto. 



164 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Incipit et voce exit JEpanalepsis eadem. 22 
Inverso repetens dat Epanodos ordine voces. 23 

EXEMPLA. 

22. Multi et graves dolores inventi parentibus, et 
propinquis multi. — Cic. 

Vidimus tuam victoriam prseliorum exitu termi- 
natam; gladium vagina vacuum in urbe non vidimus. — 
Cic. pro M. Marcel. 

Multa super Priamo rogitans, super Hectore multa. — Virg. 

Non amo te, Sabidi, nee possum dicere quare ; 

Hoc tantum possum dicere, non amo te. — Mart. lib. i. Ep. 33. 

Victus amore tui, cognato sanguine victus. — Virg. 

Una dies Fabios ad bellum miserat omnes, 
Ad bellum missos perdidit una dies. — Ov. 

XougfT's sv Kv£tco rtavtotsj rtofoiv sga, xyegets. Pllilipp. 

iv. 4. 

G-audete in Domino semper, iterum dico, gaudete. 

23. — Crudelis tu quoque mater ; 

Crudelis mater magis, an puer improbus ille? 
Improbus ille puer, crudelis tu quoque mater. — Virg. 

Ecquam putatis civitatem pacatam fuisse, quae locuples sit? 
Ecquam locupletem, quae illis pacata esse videatur ? 

Cic. pro L. Man. 

Ayn; ts ^o-roXoiyof, Egi$ r' aporov (Xiixavia., 

'H |UEV, E%uu?a. xvtioifAov a.va.i$ia SniOTnroQ' 

Af>j; 5' ev TraXa/xrifi TieKiagiov iyx?S &&/<*&• — Hom. 

Mars homicida, dea et Contentio litigiosa, 

Haec etiam turbas ciet, ac hostilia multa : 

Mars autem manibus prsegrandem concutit hastam. 

Derivationes. 
22, Ab 67rj, et a.va.\ay.Qa.v<u, repeto. 23. Ab zm, et avah?, ascensus. 



ELOCUTION. 165 

Voce Anadiplosis qua finit incipit ipsa. 24 
Confirmat vocem repetens Upizeuxis eandem. 25 

EXEMPLA. 

24. Hie tamen vivit; vivit? Imo vero etiam in 
senatum venit. — Cic. in Cat. 

Quamdiu quisquam erit qui te defendere audeat, 
vives: et vives ita ut nunc vivis, multis meis et firmis 
prsesidiis obsessus. — Id. 

Pierides: vos hasc facietis maxima Gallo ; 

Gallo, cujus amor tantum mini crescit in horas. — Virg. 

Addit se sociam, timidisque supervenit JEgle ; 

JEgle Naiadum pulcherrima. — Id. 

Ecce Dionsei processit Csesaris astrum; 

jlstrum, quo segetes gauderent frugibus. — Id. 

Ta ^'sj'iw avriof et/xt, ncti ei ttv^i X Si £ a $ 6o ' x S"j 
Et ttv^i X ei S ai loiK£[A,tvoq J' aiQom tribnga). — Hom. 
Hunc adversus eo, quamvis sit flammea dextra, 
Flammed dextra licet, vis ignea denique ferri. 

25. Tu, tu, inquam, M. Antoni, princeps C. Caesari, 
omnia perturbare cupienti, causam belli contra patriam 
inferendi dedisti. — Cic. in M. Ant. 

Ah, Cory don, Cory don, quae te dementia cepit ! — Virg. 

Excitate excitate eum, si potestis, ab inferis. — Cic, 
pro Mil. 

Crux, crux, inquam, infelici et asrumnoso compara- 
batur. — Cic. in Ver. 

Totum hoc (quantumcunque est, quod certe maximum 
est) totum est, inquam, tuum. — Cic. pro Marcel. 

Derivationes. 
24. Ab MAfonXtia), reduplico. 25. Ab eiri£evyvv{M, conjungo. 



166 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Verba Ploce repetit paulum mutantia sensum. 26 
Nomen idem variis Polyptoton casibus effert. 27 
Dat varium sensum voci Antanaclasis eidem. 28 

EXEMPLA. 

xxii. 37. 

Hierusalem, Hierusalem, occidens prophetas. 

26. Ad ilium diem Memmius erit Memmius, sc. sibi 
similis. 

Simla est Simla, etiarnsi aurea gestat insignia. 

In hac victoria Ccesar fuit Ccesar, sc. mitissimus victor. 

27. Argumentis agemus ; signis omni luce clarioribus 
crimina refellemus; res cum re, causa cum causa, ratio 
cum ratione pugnabit. — Cic. pro Owl. 

Jam clypeus clypeis, umbone, repellitur umbo, 

Ense minax ensis, pede pes, et cuspide cuspis. — Stat. Th. viii. 

Mors mortis morti mortem nisi morte dedisset, 

jEtern.se vita? janua clausa foret. — Epig. de Christo, 

'Otffr i% avtu, xch, oV avtu, xai ftj avtov ta rtavta. — Rom. 

xi. 36. 

Quoniam ex ipso, et per ipsum, et in ipso omnia. 

28. Cum Proculeius quereretur de filio, quod mortem 
suam exoptarit; et ille dixisset, se vero non expectare; 
imo, in quit, rogo expectes. — Quint.' 

Quis neget iEneae natum de stirpe Neronem ? Sus- 
tulit bic (sc. interfecit) matrem, sustulit ille (sc. de- 
portavit) patrem. — Mart. Epig. 

Derivationes. 

26. A TrXexca necto, vel fiecto. 27. A nohv;, multus, et vrarie casus. 
28. Ab avn, contra, et avaxaXew, revoco. 



ELOCUTION. 167 

Paronomasia alludit sonitumque imitatur. 29 
Naturae ejusdem sibi verba Paregmenon addit. 30 

EXEMPLA. 

Quid ergo ? ista culpa Brutorum $ Minime illorum 
quidem, sed aliorum brutorum, qui se cautos et sapi- 
entes putant.— Cic. Pp. ad Att. 

'O §s I^ffovj si7isv avtw' Axo'kisdst, fioty x&i a$fj tfsj vzxgovs 
^a-^af* 7T8J eavtav vsxgov$. — Matt. Vlii. 22. 

At Jesus ait illi: sequere me, et dimitte mortuos 
sepelire suos mortuos, 

29. Inceptio est amentium, haud amantium. — Ter. And. 
Tibi parata erunt verba, huic verbera. — Ter. Heaut. 

Nunquam satis dicitur, quod nunquam satis discitur. 
—Sen. Pp. 28. 

Itaque plebiscitum, quo magis oneratus quam hono- 
ratus, sum, primus antiquo abrogoque. — Liv. 

De oratore arator factus. — Cic. 

~Xv sv ILstgos, xat srto <tavtt] iq rtstga o(,xo8o/A.7]<sa fxa ir[v 

sxx-kviaiav. — -Matt. xvi. 18. 

Tu es Petrus, et super hac pcetra aedificabo meam 
ecclesiam. 

30. Sed ut turn ad senem senex de senectute, sic in 
hoc libro ad amicum amicissimus de amicitia scripsi. — 
Cic. de Amicitia. 

Tu quoque Pieridum studio, studiose, teneris; 
Ingenioque faves. ingeniose, rneo. — Ov. 
Is demum miser est, cujus nobilitas miserias nobilitat. 

Derivationes. 
29. A Traja, juxta et ov<Y*a, nomen. 30. A waga^o^aj, juxta ducor. 



168 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Fine sonos similes conjungit Homoioteleuton. 31 
Verba Climax repetit gradibus quoque pergit eundo.32 

EXEMPLA. 

31. Non ejusdera est facere fortiter, et vivere turpiter. 

—Cic. 

Vivis invidiose, delinquis studiose, loqueris odiose. 
Quid est in Ccelo? Nescio, sed dico quod non est: 

Non ibi debilis, aut homo fiebilis ; 

Aut furor, aut lis : 
Aut cibus, aut coquus, aut Venus, aut Jocus 

Aut tumor, aut vis. — Bern. Mor. 

Quos anguis dirus tristi mulcedine pavit ; 
Hos sanguis mirus Christi dulcedine lavit. 
Xgn fyivov ircL^ovra. <1>IAEIN, eQshovra h IIEMnEIN Horn. 

32. Neque vero se populo solum, sed etiam senatui 
commisit; neque senatui modo, sed etiam publicis prae- 
sidiis, et armis: neque his tantum, verum etiam ejus 
potestati, cui senatus totam rempublicam commiserat. — 
Cic. pro Mil. 

Quae reliqua spes libertatis manet, si illis, et quod 
libet, licet; et quod licet, possunt; et quod possunt, 
audent; et quod audent, faciunt; et faciunt quodcun- 
que molestum est ? — Cic. 

Facinus est vincire civem Eomanum; scelus verbe- 
rare, prope parricidium necare; quid dicam in crucem 
toller e ? — Cic. pro Rabir. 

'ETttxogqyqGaTfe ev 't'/j riiG-tsi v/xav trjv agstqv, ev Ss ft] a^stt] nHqv 
yvdGiVi ev Se tiq yvcosst. 'ttjv Eyx^a-tE iav, ev Se Ir} Eyx^atEia, fr]v 
VTtofjtovqv ev Se >t7i vfiofiovij rt]v svtisdsiav ev Se fq evGeSsio, trjy 
tyfaaSehfytav, ev Se tvj $tXa5f7.<jHa frjv ayurtEV. — 2 Pet. i. 5—7. 

Derivationes. 
31. Ab 'opoiw;, similiter, et teXeutsv, rinitum. 32. A xXivo, acclino. 



ELOCUTION. 169 

Iisdem plura facit Synonymia nomina rebus. 33 

Figurce ad Ratiocinationem. 
Quserit Erotesis poterat quod dicere recte. 34 

EXEMPLA. 

Subministrate in fide vestra virtutem, in autem vir- 
tute cognitionem, in autem cognitione temper antiam, in 
autem temperantia tolerantiam, in autem tolerantia 
pietatem, in autem pietate amorem fraternitatis, in 
autem amore fraternitatis charitatem. 

33. Vultus denique totus, qui sermo quidam tacitus 
mentis est, hie in errorem homines impulit: hie eos, 
quibus erat ignotus, decejpit fefellit, in fraudem induxit. 
— Cic. in L. Pis. 

Quem si fata virum servant, si vescitur aura 

iEtherea, neque adhuc crudelibus occubat umbris. — Virg. 

Quicunque ubique sunt, qui fuere, quique futuri sunt 
posthac, stulti, stolidi, fatui, fungi, bardi, blenni, buc- 
cones, solus ego omnes longe anteeo stultitia et indoctis 
moribus. — Mart. 

34. Et procul : O miseri, quae tanta insania cives ? 
Creditis avectos hostes? aut ulla putatis 

Dona carere dolis Danaum? sic notus Ulysses? — Virg. 

'H j3«7.£cf0£ 9 eirts pot, rttguovtis avtav rtvvOavstiOcu xata tir.v 
ayogav, T^systiav tic xcuvov', yevoitio ya£ av tit, xatvoff^oj/, tj Maz?- 
Sczv avqg AOrjvcuas xatiartohsfiov, xai tia ticav 'Em^vwj.' Sioixcov '. 
tifdv/jxe QifoirLTtos ; a fxa At , aM, addtvit. T\§' 'vpiv Siafyegeo ; 

Derivationes. 
33. A o-w, con, et ovofna, nomen. 34. Ab egwraog, interrogo. 

15 



170 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Anticipat, quae quis valet objecisse, Prolepsis. 35 
Plane, aut dissimulans, permittit Epitrope factum. 36 

EXEMPLA. 

Demost. Philip, i. 

Num vultis, die mini, circumcursitantes alius alium 
percontari in foro, diciturne aliquid novi ? Quid enim 
magis novum fieri potest, quam hominem Macedonem 
Atheniensis bello subigere, Grseciasque pro suo libitu 
res administrare ? Mortuusne est Philippus ? Non per 
Jovem: atqui aegrotat. Quid vero hoc vestra interest ? 
Etsi enim moriatur ille, brevi vos alium Pliilippum vobis 
faeietis. 

35. Siquis vestrum, Judices, aut eorum qui adsunt, 
forte miratur, me, qui tot annos in causis judiciisque 
publicis ita sim versatus, ut defenderim multos laeserim 
neminem subito nunc mutata voluntate ad acusandum 
descendere : is, si mei consilii causam rationemque cog- 
noverit, una et id quod facio probabit, et in bac causa 
profecto neminem, prgeponendum esse mibi actorem 
putabit. — Cie. in Ccecil. 

AU s^sc ti$' IIcoj sysigovtai, oc vsxgoi ; rtotco 8s tfio/iatt t£z ov ~ 
•tai ; A$£oj», Gv 6 Grtu^Eis, a ^ioo7ioititac, sav fiyj anoOarrj. — 

1 Cor. xv. 35, 36. 

Sed dicet aliquis; quomodo resurgunt mortui? quali 
autem corpore veniunt ? insipiens, tu quod seminas, non 
vivificatur, si non moriatur. 

36. Tribuo Grsecis literas, do multarum artium dis- 
ciplinam, ingeniorum acumen, dicendi copiam, denique 

Derivationes. 
35. A 9rfoXa ( w£av» ; anticipo. 36. Ad S7riTgt7ra), permitto. 



ELOCUTION. 171 

Consultat cum alliis Anaccenosis ubique. 3T 

EXEMPLA. 

etiam siqua alia sibi sumunt, non rupugno : testimoni- 
orum religionem et fidem nunquam ista natio coluit.- — 
Cic. pro Flae. 

Sint sane, quoniam ita se mores habent, liberales ex 
sociorum fortunis, sint misericordes in furibus serarii: 
ne illis sanguinem nostrum largiantur; et, dum paucis 
sceleratis parcunt, bonos omnes perditum eant. — Sail. 

Egfts av. E%£x%aa9?j6av oc xhaboi, I'va syco tyxsvtgtoOa. Kaftcoj* 
tit] artcdtta s^ixhaaOqaav, 6v 8s ty 7iiOT!zi EtfT^xaj* py v^qhcfy govsi, 

awn <po6s — Horn. xi. 19, 20. 

Dices ergo: Defracti sunt rami, ut ergo insererer. 
Pulchre; incredulitate defracti sunt, tu autem fide 
stas; ne efferaris animo, sed time. 

37. Qusero, si te hodie domum tuam redeuntem co- 
acti homines, et armati, non modo limine, tectoque 
sedium tuarum, sed primo aditu, vestibuloque prohibue- 
rint, quid acturus sis ? — Qic. 

Tu denique, Labiene, quid faceres tali in re ac tem- 
pore ? cum ignavise ratio te in fugam, atque in latebras 
impelleret: improbitas et furor Lucii Saturnini in Capi- 
tolium arcesseret: consules ad patriae salutem ac liber- 
tatem vocarent: quam tandem auctoritatem, quam 
vocem, cujus sectam sequi, cujus imperio parere potis- 
simum velles ? — Cic. pro Rul, 

Quin denique, quid censetis ? cedo, si vos in eo loco 
essetis, quid aliud fecissetis ? — Cic. 

Derivatio. 

37. Ab gvuHom®, communico. 



172 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Oppositum Antithesis sensum librare paratur, 38 
Oxymoron erit quasi contraclictio vera. 39 

EXEMPLA. 

38. Odit populus Romanus privatam luxuriam, pub- 
licam rnunificentiam cliligit. — Oie. 

Ex hac parte pudor pugnat, illi ne petulantia. — Id. 

Caesar beneficiis ac munificentia rnagnus habebatur, 
integritate vitse Cato, &c. — Sail. 

Egentes in locupletes, perditi in bonos, servi in do- 
niinos, armabantur . — Cic. 

Ta yag o-^covia i'qe, afiagtias, §avato$' to 8e ^a^Kj^a tv ©£«> £w?7 
cuwvtoj sv X^ttJi'w I^ffs fu Ku£iw '^cov. Roill. vi. 23. 

Nam stipendia peccati mors; at donatio Dei, vita 
eeterna in Christo Jesu Domino nostro. 

39. De te autem, Catilina, cum quiescunt, probant; 
cum patiuntur, decernunt: cum tacent, clamant. — Cic. 
in Cat. 

Et, consanguineas ut sanguine leniat umbras, 
Impietaie pia est. — Ov. 

Nunquam se minus otiosum esse quam otiosum, nee 
minus solus quam cum solus esset. 

Id aliquid nihil est. — Ter. And. Ut cum ratione 
insanias. — Ter. Eun. Tu pol, si sapis, quod scis, 
nescias. — Ter. Heaut. 

— Concordia discors. — Ov. 

Amici absentes adsunt, &c. — Cic. 

'H §f cfrtafaXcocfa £wcra, T?£6vr t xe. 1 Tim. V. 6. 

At deliciosa vivens, mortua est. 

Derivationes. 

3S. Ab cam, contra, el rtQsfxi, pono. 39. Ab o%vg, acutus, et y.oo°o<;, stultus. 



ELOCUTION. 1T3 

Consulit, addubitans quit agat dicatve, Aporia. 40 

Figures ad Affectuum Qoncitationem. 
Concitat JEcphonesis et Exclamatio mentem. 41 

EXEMPLA. 

40. Quo me miser conferam ? quo vertam ? in capi- 
tolium? at fratris sanguine redundat: an domum? 
matremne ut miseram, lamentantem que videam, et 
abjectam ? — Cic. de Cfrac. 

— quid igitur faciam miser ? 
Quidve incipiam? ecce autem video rure redeuntem senem. 
Dicam huic, an non 1 — -Ter. Eun. 
Eloquar an sileam 1 ? — Virg. 
Quid faciam ? roger, anne urogem ? quid deinde rogabo 1 — Ov. 

Ei,rt£ 8s sv savta o oixovofio$' Tt rtoitjGa < otv 'o xvgio$ ps 
afycugsffcu Tfyjv oixovo/xiav art' spa \ axa,7tt£W ax tcf^vw, sriatts iv 
aiaxwonai. Luc. Xvi. 3. 

Ait autem in seipso dispensator; quid faciam, quia 
dominus meus aufert dispensationem a me ? fodere non 
valeo mendicare erubesco. 

41. audaciam immanem ! tu etiam ingredi illam 
domum ausus es ? tu illud sanctissimum limen intrare ? 
tu illarum medium diis penatibus os importunissimum 
ostendere ? — Cic. in M. Ant. 

clementiam admirabilem, atque omni laude, prsedi- 
catione, Uteris, monumentisque decorandam ! — Cic. pro 
Lig. 

scelus ! pestis ! labes ! — Cic. in Pis. 

Ccelum! terra! maria Neptuni! — Ter. jldelph. 

Derivationes. 

40. Ab a7TU)otaj, addubito. 41. Ab exqmeoc, exclamo. 

15* 



174 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Librat in Antithetis contraria Enantiosis. 42 
Ajjosiopesis sensa imperfecta relinquit. 43 

EXEMPLA. 

Heu pietas! heu prisca fides I invictoque bello 
D extra! — Virg. 

Oss fxs, ®ss ,u«, watt fxs syxatf shirts j. 3£dtt7l. XXYli. 46. 

Deus metis, Deus meus, ut quid me dereliquisti ! 

42. Conferte lianc pacem cum illo hello; hujus pns- 
toris adventum, cum illius imperatoris victoria; hujus 
cohortem impuram cum illius exercitu invicto; hujus 
libidines cum illius continentia ; ab illo qui cepit condi- 
tas; ab hoc, qui constitutas accepit, captas dicetis 
Syracusas. — Cic. in Ver. 

Plura bella gessit, quam cseteri legerunt ; plures pro- 
tincias confecit, quam alii concupiverunt : cujus ado- 
lescentia ad scientiam rei militaris non alienis praeceptis, 
sed suis imperiis : non offensionibus belli, seel victoriis : 
non stipendiis, sed triumphis est erudita. — Cic. pro Leg. 
Man. 

Alba ligustra cadunt, vaccinia nigra leguntur. — Virg. 

43. — Quern quidem ego si sensero — 

Sed quid opus est verbis. — Ter. And. 

Quos ego — sed prsestat motos componere fluctus. — Virg. 
Cantando tu ilium ? aut unquam tibi fistula cera, 
Juncta fuif? — Id. 

— Ego te, furcifer, 
Si vivo. — Ter. Eun. 

Asyuv' oto si syva$ xai av, xav ys sv <tv\ rj[A.sg<x 68 'to.vtr l , ta 
rt^os sigyvqi' 08 vvv 8s sxgvSr] arto o$0aX ( uu>r as. Z/UC. xix. 42. 

Derivationes. 
42. Ab svavTJOj, oppositus. 43. Ab airoa-ix7ratu, obticeo. 



ELOCUTION. 175 

Rem negat Apophasis, quam transgreditur Para- 
leipsis. 44 

Verba Epanorthosis revocans addensque reformat. 45 

EXEMPLA. 

Dicens: quia si cognovisses et tu, et quidem in die 
tua hac, quae ad pacem tuam; nunc autem abscondita 
sunt ab oculis tuis. 

Ejttots V avrt 
X^Biu s,usio ■yiimrai auusa Xoiyov afjtvvai 
Toig aXXon' — » y&l oy oXoji<7{ <J>gss-t Svei. — Horn. 

Sin vero unquam posthac opus me fuerit ad indignam 
pestem arcendam ab aliis: — certe enim ille perniciosis 
consiliis furit. 

44. Mitto illam primam libidinis injuriam, mitto ne- 
farias generi nuptias, mitto cupiditate matris expulsam 
matrimonio filiam. — Cic. pro Cluent. 

Non refer am ignaviam, et alia magis scelesta, quorum 
poenitere oportet: taceo, omitto homicidia, furta, et 
alia tua crimina: nee ea dico, quae si dicam, tamen 
infirmare non possis. — Cic. in Ver. 

'otL xao asavtov pot 7t£o<yo<|>£ift.?tj. Phil. 19. 

Ego Paulus scripsi mea manu, ego dependam; ut 
non dicam tibi quod et teipsum mihi addebes. 

45. An vero ignoratis, neque in hoc pervagato civi- 
tatis sermone versantur, quas ille legis, (si leges nomi- 
nandae sunt, ac non fasces urbis et pestes reipublicae) 
fuerit impositurus nobis omnibus, atque inusturus? — 
Cic. pro Mil. 

Derivationes. 

44. Ab awo, ab, et <f>aa;, dico: a TttjaXjiTrw, prsetermitto. 

45. Ab £7rav6f9oat;, corrigo. 



176 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Digna prseire, solet postponere Anastrophe verba. 46 
Dialyton tollit juncturam, et Asyndeton seque. 47 

EXEMPLA. 

— Filium unicum adolescentulum 
Habeo : ah! quid dixi habere me? imo habui, Chrerae: 
Nunc habeam, nee ne, incertum est. — Ter. Heaut. 

dementia ! dementia, dixi ? potius patientia mira. 
— Cic. in Ver. 

AAAa 7ttC,i66ot£S,Qv avtav rtavtav exortiaaa' ax sya> 6s, aTA 'ij 

xo-eis ** ®sa \ 6w s/xoi. — 1 Cor. xv. 10. 

Sed abundantius illis omnibus laboravi; non ego 
autem sed gratia Dei quae cum me. 

46. Pastorum Musam, Damonis et Alphesibcei, 
Immemor herbarum quos est mirata juvenca 
Certantes ; quorum stupefacta? carmina Jynces ; 
Et mutata suos requierunt fiumina cursus 
Damonis Musam dicemus et Alphesibosi. — Virg. 

Quid deinde ? quid censeris ? furtum fortasse aut 
prsedam aliquam? — Cic. in Ver. Deinde, (inquit Quin- 
tilianus,) cum diu suspendisset judicum animos, subjecit 
quod multo esset improbius. 

47. Ite, 

Ferte citi flammas, date vela, impellite remos. — Virg. 

Cseteros ruerem, agerem, raperem, tunderem, prosternerem. — Ter. 

Turn spectaculum horribile in campus patentibus : 
sequi, fugere, occidi, capi. — Sail. 

Abiit, excessit, evasit, erupit. — Cic. in Cat. 
Veni, vidi, vici. — Cobs. 

Derivationes. 

46. Ab avctTT^sfoOf retro verto. 

47. A Siakvw, dissolvo : ab a, privat. et e-whw, conjungo. 



ELOCUTION. 177 

Conjunctura frequens vocum Polysyndeton esto. 48 
Periphrasis verbis rem pluribus explicat unam. 49 

EXEMPLA. 

Kcu Gvy-SaXovtsi •z'aj atfrtiSas, ew^svi'o, tfxaxovto, aHsx-tiivov, 
arttSvTjtixor}. XenopJl. 

Et confligentes clypeos impellebantur, pugnabant, 
csedebant, moriebantur. De istiusmodi construction, 
vide Mom. II, lib. i. 105; iii. 23; iv. 89, 327; v. 276, 
840; vi. 392, 517; vii. 23; xi. 196; xii. 365; xv. 239. 

48. Me prse ceteris et colit et observat, et diligit. — 
Cie. in Epist. 

Et somnus, et vinum, et epulse, et scorta, et Balnese, 
corpora atque animos enervant. — Liv. 

tectum que, laremgw, 
Arma^e, Amyclseumgw canem, Crcssamgw, pharetram. — Virg. 

JTfrtfKfyiat yag t ats §ava-to$, ats £037, si's ayysT.01, uts a£#at, 
His 8vva[X£t$, Hts svecttuta, ats [AsTiKovta, xtie 'v^copa ats /3a0oj, 
nth T"tj x-tiGis l £i?sga 8vv£6£tao '^aj #to£tcfat arto fys ayart^j fs 

©£«, tqs sv x^icfT'co lya* t'w Kvgico '^^cof . — Pom. viii. 38, 39. 
Persuasus sum enim, quia neque mors, neque vita, 
neque angeli, neque principatus, neque potestates, ne- 
que instantia, neque futura, neque altitudo, neque pro- 
funditas, neque aliqua creatura alia poterit nos separare 
a charitate Dei, quas in Christo Jesu Domino nostro. 

49. Fecerunt id servi Milonis, neque imperante, ne- 
que sciente, neque prsesente domino, quod suos quisque 
servos in tali re facere voluisset, (sc. interfecerunt Clo- 
dium.) — Oic. pro Mil. 

Derivationes. 

48. A ?ro\vi, multus, et a-wtieu, conjungo. 

49. A ve^^x, circumloquor. 



178 



THE ART OF RHETORIC. 



Exprimit, atque oculis quasi subjicit Hypotyposis. 50 
Res, loca, personas, affectus, tempora, gestus. 
Narratum claudit, vel Epiphonema probatum. 51 



EXEMPLA. 

Trojani belli scriptor, sc. Homerus. — Hor. 

Et jam summa procul villarum culmina fumant, 
Majoresque cadunt altis de montibus umbrae.' — Virg. 

"O ixaO^trji sxelvos, 6v ^yarta 'o I^cfKj. JoCUl Xxi. 7. 

Discipulus ille, quera diligebat Jesus. 

50. Yideor enim mini hanc urbem videre, lucem 
orbis terrarum, atque arcem omnium gentium, subito 
uno incendio concidentem: cerno animo sepulta in 
patria miseros, atque insepultos acervos civium: ver- 
satur mihi ante occulos aspectus Cethegi, et furor in 
vestra csede baccbantis. — Cic. in Cat. 

Obstupui, steteruntque comas, et vox faucibus hassit. — Virg. 

Ot pel, nra.ni (xr noi <pvyoo. — Eurip. Iphig. Taur. 
Hei mihi ! interficiet me : quo fugiam ? 

51. Musa, mihi causas memora: quo numine lasso 
Quidve dolens regina Deum, tot volvere casus 
Insignem pietate virum, tot adire labores 
Impulerit. TantcEne animis ccelestibus ir<z. — Virg. 
Tantse molis erat Romanam condere gentem ! — Id. 

Quam ut adipiscantur omnes optant, eandem accu- 
sant adepti: Tarda est stultitia et perversitas ! — Cic. de 
Senect. 

Tot's sirtsv 'o j3atft^£i;j t.oic, Siaxorois' Aqtfavts$ avts cto5a$,xcu 
^ugac, agats avtov, xai, sx6a%sts ft? to cfzo-foj *to sicofEgoy' ex£i 

Derivationes. 
50. 'vTrorvrrocD, repraesento. 51. Ab emqwiv, acclamo. 



ELOCUTION. 179 

Personam, 5 numerum, commutat Enallage, 2 tempus 52 
Cumque 3 modo, 4 genus et pariter : sic saepe videbis. 



EXEMPLA. 

stitau e o x%av9iAo$ xav 'o jS^vyuos fcov aSovtaV' IIoM.ot ya£ siac 

x^qtoL, oTiiyoo 8s sxtextoc. — ATatt. xxii. 13, 14. 

Tunc dixit rex niinistris: ligantes ejus pedes et 
manus tollite eum, et ejicite in tenebras exteriores; ibi 
erit fletus et fremitus dentium : multi enim sunt voeati 
pauci vero electi. 

52. * Ubi te ignavise traclideris, (pro tradiderint.) — 
Sail 

Alta petunt : pelago credas innare revulsas 

Cycladas, aut montes concurrere montibus altos. — Virg. 

<!>«(«? x' aK^mai; xai areigecu; aWvXoiciv 

Avt£<t9' ev 7roKsfA.a}' 'a-; Eo-avftgi/wc e/ua^Q\ro. — Horn. 

Dieeres illos indefatigatos et indomitos sibi invicem 
occurrere in pugna; adeo concitate pugnabant. 

(Ubi, secunda persona utendo, Homerus lectorem 
facit ut res ibi gestas non amplius legat, sed cernat; ut 
denique non tarn Poetse quam pugnantium comes sit.) 

2 Hastam intorsit equo, ferrumque sub aure reliquit : 
Quo sonipes ictu furit arduus, altaque jactat, 
Vulneris impatiens, arrecto pectore crura: 
Volvitur ille excussus humi. — Virg. 

(Ubi, prsesenti tempore utendo, Virgilius lectorem 
facit et equi vulnus et bellatoris casum pene oculis 
videre.) — Sic. 

rifrtTcoxcoj ds tit, \<7to to Kvgv trtrtco, xai rtattsptvos, rtcusi ty 

Derivatio. 
52. Ab tvaWaTTW; permuto. 



180 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Est vocurn inter se turbatus Hyperbaton orclo. 53 

EXEMPLA. 

Kvgov, c o 8e TtiTitti — Xenoph. de Oyropced., lib. vii. 

Cum cecidissit quidain subter equum Cyri et procul- 
caretur, ferit equi ventrem gladio; ille auteni segre 
ferens excutit Cyruin, hie vero decidit. 

3 Xat^fti/ jUET'a ^at^oj/r'w^, xav x"hox£cv fista seftatoj/fcoi/. PoM. 

xii. 15. 

Gander e cum gaudentibus, et flere cum fientibus. 

4 De bac generis inutatione, frequens est apud Ho- 
merum usus ; dicit enim x-Kvto$ 'ittrcoSaueia, et tsxvov $as. 

5 Singularis numerus positus vice pluralis vi et majes- 
tate orationem vestit. — Sic. 

~Eris9 %; HeXorCovvqso^ 'artaaa Sisidtqxsi. 

Deinde omnis Peloponnesus in factiones discessit. 
(Verba sunt Deinosthenis in oratione pro Corona, ubi 

9 q Ils^OTtovvr^os USUrpatur pro ol n^ortoz-i^ffioc.) 

E contra Pluralis pro Singulari s^pe ponitur: ut, 

Ov yog HshorCes, vSs Ka^uot, ub AiyvrCtov it xai Aavaot, «6' 
oXkoi rtoWkoi tyvGst j3aQ§a£oi ovvoixxsiv qy.iv, ah% clvtol ^Ehhqve j, 8 
juifoffagffagoi, oixtspev. Plat, ill MeueX. 

Neque enim Pelopes, neque Cadmi, neque JEgyptii 
et Danai, neque alii multi origine Barbari una nobis- 
cum habitant; sed nos ipsi Hellenes, non cum Barbaris 
commixti, babitamus. 

53. Vina, bonus quae deinde cadis onerat Acestes, 

Litore Trinacrio, dederatque abeuntibus heros. — Virg. 

Derivatio. 

53. Ab Wsf&Kva', transgredior. 



ELOCUTION. 181 



Sermonem a prsesenti avertit Apostrophe rite. 54 
Largitur linguam Prosopopoeia mutis. 55 

EXEMPLA. 

(Ordo hie erat: Deinde herosdividit vina, quae bonus 
Acestes^ &c.) 

— Agyeioi h (xvy ict)(ov, a/jc<pi Js vbej 
SftEpJaXSov KovaQ-no-ctv, avo-avrouv 'utt' A^atoov, 
Mvdov Z7raww(ra.i)TSq oSvac-not; Setoto, — Horn. 
Argivi vero altum clamabant, circumcircaque naves 
Terribiliter sonitum reddebant, clamitantibus Achivis, 
Sermonem collaudantes Ulyssis divini. 

(Ordo namque orationis est, A^yftot 5e psy' taxov, 

54. Et auro 

Vi potitur. Quid non mortalia pectora cogis, 
Auri sacra fames?' — Virg. 

Vos, vos appello, fortissimi viri, qui multum pro re- 
publica sanguinem effudistis. — Qic. pro Mil. 

Yos enim, Albani tumuli, atque luci, vos, inquam, 
imploro atque obtestor, &c. — Id. 

— Pereunt Hypanisque Dymasque 
Confixi a sociis : nee te, tua plurima, Pantheu, 
Labentem pietas, nee Apollinis infula texit! — Virg. 

A.VK ovx stiTfiv, ovx ftffcv, orCcog qpagT'stis avSges AQ^vaioc, tov 
vrtsg tys ariavtcov £%£v9egias xao acottgiag xevftvvov a^a/xsvoi' Ov 
jxa ?x$ sv Ma£a(9coi>& 7tgoxLvSvv£vGavtas tiov ri^oyoin^v, xac t?x$ sv 
nxafatatj 7tagata%a{i£vovs, xcu tag £v Xa'ko.fj.ivi vavfAaxqaavTfas, xat 
r«s sri Agrf^c-Stco, xa.i TioVkovc, £t£gov$, t«$ £v T'otj 6r{/Aotii.oi$ ^vt]- 

juast xstp£vov$, ayadovs av8^. — Demost. Orat. pro Cor. 
55. Etenim si mecum patria, quae mihi vita mea 

Derivationes. 

54. Ab «7roo-Tf s<pa>, averto. 55. A Tr^oa-anrov, persona, et iroax, facio. 

16 



182 THE AET OF RHETORIC. 

Figurce Minor es. 
Vocibus abundat Pleonasmus, et emphasin auget. 56 
Dicitur Ellipsis, si ad sensum dictio desit. 57 

EXEMPLA. 

multo est carior, si cuncta Italia, si omnis respublica 
loquatur: M. Tulli, quid agis ? — Cic. in Cat. 

Patria tecum, Catilina, sic agit, et quodammodo 
tacita loquitur: Nullum jam tot annos facinus extitit, 
nisi per te. — Id. 

Quamobrem si cruentum gladium tenens clamaret T. 
Annius, adeste, quseso, atque audite, cives P. Clodium 
interfeci: ejus furores, quos nullis jam legibus, nullis 
judiciis frenare poterainus, hoc ferro et bac dextera a 
cervicibus vestris repuli; per me, ut unum jus, sequitas, 
leges, libertas, pudor, pudicitia in civitate manerent; 
esset vero timendum, quonammodo id factum feret 
civitas; nunc enim quis est, qui non probet? qui non 
laudet ? — Cic. pro Mil. 

Aut conjurato descendens Dacus ab Istro. — Virg. 
Virtus sumit aut ponit secures. — Hor. 
Arbore nunc aquas culpante. — Id. 

56. Satin' hoc certum ? certum : hisce oculis egomet vidi. — Ter. Adelph. 

Sic ore locuta est. — Virg. 

KaXov y ovtw syxv ovtto) i$ov o<pQa\y.oi7iv. — Horn. 
Pulcbrum autem adeo ego nonclum vidi ocidis. 
AXX" ctyzT*, etixEv 7ra>; Swgn%oy.zv vta.$ A^ataov. — Horn. 
Verum agite, si quo modo armenius fdios Achivorum. 

57. Triduo abs te nullas acceperam, (sc. epistolas.) — 
Cic. 

Derivationes. 

56. A 7rXsoJa£a>, redundo. 57. Ab E?.XHJ7r<w, deficio. 



ELOCUTION. 183 

Res specie varias Synatlircesmus congerit una. 58 
Hendiadi verbis res dicitur unica binis. 59 
Quod meruit primum, vult Hysteron esse secundum. 60 
Casu transposito submutat Hypallage verba. 61 

EXEMPLA. 

Rhodum volo, inde Athenas, (i. e. ire.) — Id, 
Civica donatus, (i. e. corona.) — Liv. Dii meliora, 
(i. e. faciant.) — Oic. 

58. Grammaticus, Rhetor, Geometres, Pictor, Aliptes, 

Augur, Scho3nobates, Medicus, Magus, omnia novit. — Juv. 

— faces in castra tulissem : 
Implessemque foros flammis : natumque patremque 
Cum genere extinxem: memet super ipsa dedissem.— Virg. 

Nihil ex ista laude Centurio, nihil Praefectus, nihil 
Conors, nihil Turma decerpit. — Oic. pro Marcel. 

59. — hie fertilis uvae, 
Hie laticis ; qualem pateris libamus et auro, 

(pro aureis pateris.) — Virg. 
Nee mihi displiceat maculis insignis et albo, 
(pro albis maculis.) — Id. 

60. ■ — moriamur, et in media arma ruamus. — Id. 
Me, me : adsum qui feci ; in me convertite ferrum, 
O Rutuli, mea fraus omnis. — Id. 

Valet atque vivit. — Ter. Heaut. 

61. In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas 

Corpora, (pro corpora mutata in novas formas.) — Ov. Met. 
Necdum illis labra admovi, sed condita servo, 

(pro ilia labris.) — Virg. 

— dare classibus austros, 

(pro classes austris.) — Id. 

Derivationes. 
58. A avvaQ^oi^M, congrego. 59. Ab 'gv, unum, et Jja, per, et $vo, duo. 
60. Ab 'utTTSgov, posterius. 61. Ab 'vnro, in, et aWarTu } muto. 



184 THE AUT OF RHETORIC. 

Hellenismus erit phrasis aut constructio Graeca. 62 
Propositum propriis probat JEtiologia causis. 63 
Voce interposita per Tmesin verbula scindas. 64 
Antimeria solet pro parte apponere partem. 65 
Inversis vertit sensum Antimetabole verbis. 66 

EXEMPLA. 

62. Et qua pauper aquae Daunus agrestiura 
Regnavit populornm : 
(pro regnator populorum.) — Hor. 
Desine mollium. querelarum. — Id. Desine clamorum. 

63. Sperne voluptates; nocet empta dolor e voluptas, 

Mjy 7t?^avaoQe' ©foj « fivxtr^i^etcu' 6 yo.% eav artei^r} avQga7to$* 
rato kcu ^egiaei GrCcl. vi. T. 

Ne errate ? Deus non irridetur; quod enim semin- 
averit homo hoc et metet. 

64. Quo nos cxcnque feret melior fortuna parente, 
Ibimus, O socii comitesque. — Hor. 

Quern fors dierum cunque dabit, lucro appone. — Id. 

Qihe me cunque vocant terrae. — Virg. 
Talis Hyperboreo Sept em subjecta trioni 
Gens effrena virura. — Id. 

AITO f*ev <l>iXa Sipara ATISl. — Horn. 

65. Sole recens orto, aut uoctem ducentibus astris-, 

(pro sole recenter orto, &c.) — Virg. 

66. Poema est pictura loquens, pictura est mutum 
poema. 

Etenim, cum sit artifex ejusmodi, ut solus dignus 
rideatur esse, qui scenam introeat: turn vir ejusmodi 

Derivationes. 

62. Ab 'sWnvifa Graece loquor. 63. Ab aiTioXoyeoo, rationem reddo. 
64. A ts/*v&>, vel T/«aw, seco. 65. Ab am, pro, et /wsgoj, pars. 

66. Ab avri, contra, et fAsraCaXXae, inverto. 



ELOCUTION. 185 

Explicat, oppositum addens, Paradiastole recte. 67 
Tota intervallis dat Epimone carmina certis. 68 
Antiptosis amat pro casu ponere casum. 69 

EXEMPLA. 

est, ut solus videatur dignus, qui eo non accedat. — Cie. 
pro Sext. Rose. 

Ov yag 'o ^eXw, rfocw ayaOov' a%% 'o « ^£^,w xaxov tato rtgaaao. 

Bom. vii. 19. 

Non enim quod volo, facio bonum, sed quod non volo 
malum hoc ago. 

67. Premitur virtus non opprimitur. 

Non formosus erat, sed erat facundus Ulysses. — Ov. 

Non enim furem, sed direptorem; non adulterum, 
sed expugnatorem pudicitise. — Qic. in Ver. 

Non sapiens, sed astutus. — - 

Ev rtavti ^XiSo/iievqi, aXK a dfevoxugafAivoc' artogisfjisvot, aXk ax 
s<;a7togX[A,£voL' 8icoxofi,svoi, a?^ ax £yxata"k£V7tOfisvoi' xata6a'K7iOfi,£voc, 
aM-' ax artoMvpevot,. 2 QoT. iv. 8, 9. 

In omni tribulati, sed non coarctati; haesitantes, sed 
non prorsus hserentes; persequutionem passi, sed non 
deserti; dejecti, sed non perditi. 

68. Incipe Maenalios mecum, mea tibia, versus.— Virg. 

Ducite ab urbe domum, mea carmina, ducite Daphnin. — Id. 
Ag%-n Ea>xoXixaf, Moorai <pi\at. a^ST* aoi^aq. — Theoc. Idyl. 1. 

69. Urbem quam statuo, vestra est; subducite naves. 

(pro urbs quam statuo, &c.) — Virg. 

Derivationes. 
67. A 7ra.^ethacrroXXu, disjungo. 68. Ab trnpevtu, permaneo. 

69. Ab a\rt, pro, et tttwo-j?, casus. 

16* 



186 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

De Figuris Orthographies. 

Prosthesis apponit capiti; sed Aphceresis aufert. 70,71 
Syncope de medio tollit ; sed Fpenthesis addit. 72, 73 

EXEMPLA. 

Nominativus etiam ssepe provocative usurpatur, ut 
apud Homerum in Iliad, i. v. 596. 

EvravQx T^S^Sif, <ptXog. 

Et illud Ejusdem in Odyss. y. 375. 

SI 4>{Xo;, a es ioXtto. xaxcv xai ava7iX.iv Bs-ea-Bcti. — Horn. 

(Duobus bis in locis, <pt\o; ponitur pro $i\e.) 

70. Gnatuni pro natum ; nxS'ajf pro e\$aoe 

Gnatum exhortarer, ni mistus matre Sabella. — Vvg. 

To£« fXOl HgntlVW Bi\$01l. Ho)?l. 

71. Mitte pro omitte; aia pro yaia] xn.voo pro exsivu, 
Mitte, sectari, rosa quo locorum 

Sera moretur. — Hor. 

SI* <p2T0' TOVi y V$V XaTtyZV ^vai^OOQ aia. HoVfi. 

<J»j yag cy aisrissiv Tl^iafxav ttoXiv r,y.an xeow, 
N»7noj. — Id. 

72. Periclis, pro periculis ; Trargi, pro Trarigi. 

Deseris ; beu tantis nequidquam erepte periclis. — Virg. 

ITfiv y a.TTo ira-Tgi <J><Xo> Sopsvai sXixunri^a xov^vv. — Hom. 

73. Relliquias, pro reliquias; vas-ov, pro >oc-ov; £stvo?, pro fsvo;. 
Troas relliquias Danaum atque immitis Achillei. — Virg. 

Neirov ava c-rgarov oopss xaxnv' oX6kovto Js Xaoi. — Hom. 
'H fa vv fxo; £tivo$, TtaraiPicq stcti TraXaioq. — Id. 

Derivationes. 

70. A n^oa-riBnfJt.1, appono. 71. Ab a<pai--sx, aufero. 

72. A aw, con, et kotttm, scindo. 73. Ab tare, in, et gvn9>j ( ui, insero. 



ELOCUTION. 187 

Abstrahit Apocope fini; sed dat Paragoge. 74, 75 
Metathesis de sede movens elementa reponit. 76 
Antistoichon et Antithesis elementa refingunt. 77 

De Figuris Prosodice. 
M vorat JEcthlipsis; sed vocalem Synalcepha. 78, 79 

EXEMPLA. 

74. Peculi, pro peculii; oti, pro otii; $a> pro $a>{A.a. 
Nee spes libertatis erat; nee cura peculi. — Virg, 
Illo Virgilium me tempore dulcis alebat 
Parthenope, studiis florentem ignobilis oti. — Id. 

Kai tot' vniiTa rot etfxi Atog wort p^aAxoCa tsj $<w. — Horn. 

75. Immiscerier, pro immisceri ; aflgXjjo-Sa, pro s9sX»j. 
Sin maculae incipient rutilo immiscerier igni. — Virg. 

AAXa fxaX' eukjjXoj ra tyga^sat, acrcr' iQlXvo-Qa., — Hom. 

76. Thymbre, pro Thymber ; Ka^rn, pro x^ara; xjaW, pro hu^ikv, 
Nam tibi Thymbre, caput Evandrius abstulit ensis.— Virg. 

— Hvog-tj Triirvvoi xat Ka^rtt "^it^cav. — Hom. 
O^oQa^, avvot; OfAfxar' e%a>v Hfahnv £' sXa<poto. — Id. 

77. Olli, pro illi; volgus, pro vulgus; [A.e'kirrav pro (xfris-o-av. 
Olli cagruletis supra caput adstitit imber. — Virg. 

Quod volgus servorum solet. — Ter. And. 
Efiw? ttct' ev ^ooTi 

K0lfA.00fA.lVr)V fA,E\lTTCLV 

Qvx. uhv aXX' ercuQv. — AtldC, 

78. Italiam, Italiam primus conclamat Achates. — Virg. 

O curas hominum ! O quantum est in rebus inane. — Pers. 

79. Conticuere omnes, intentiqwe ora tenebant. — Virg. 
Dardanidse muris; spes addita suscitat iras. — Id. 
Ovg xev zv yvoinv, xat rvvo/xa. {A,vQn<rai{A.£v. — Horn. 

Derivationes. 
74. Ab alto, ab, et xo7tta>, scindo. 75. A ita^a, prseter, et ayoo, duco. 
76. A fAera, trans, et rtQnfxi, pono. 77. Ab avrt, contra, et riBvfAt, pono. 
78. Ab enOxi&w, elido. 79. A c-vva\ei$a>, conglutino. 



188 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Systole corripit, extenditque Diastole tempus. 80, 81 
Conficit ex binis contracta Synceresis unam. 82 
Dividit in binas resoluta Diceresis unam. 83 

EXEMPLA. 

80. Tulerunt, pro tulerunt; Bqoopev, pro B^w^r. 

Matri longa decern tulerunt fastidia menses. — Virg. 

— Av £' avTtiv Xgva-rutia, KaKhnra.^ov 
Bno-ofAtv. — Horn. 

81. Priamiden, pro Priamiden; arnor, pro amor. 

Atque hie Priamiden laniatum corpore toto. — Virg. 
Considant, si tantus amor, et moenia condant. — Id. 

l$ov ato\ov 'oipiv. — Horn. 

82. Seu lento fuerint alvearia vimine texta. — Virg. 
Unius ob noxam et furias Ajacis Oilei. — Id. 

AXXa Trarng ov/xo$ ty^iiri fxaivsi at ova ayaBrjiri. — Hom. 

83. Aurai trissyllabum, pro aur8e dissyllabo; siluae 
pro silvae. 

^Ethereum sensum, atque aurai simplicis ignem. — Virg. 
Nivesque deducunt Jovem ; nunc mare nunc silu<B. — Hor. 

Derivationes. 
80. A ervs-TsXXoo, contraho. 81. A ^as-rsXXa;, produco. 

82. A c-vv£iga>i connecto. S3. A $iai?£x, divido. 



PRONUNCIATION. 189 



PART IV 



PRONUNCIATION.* 

What is Pronunciation ? 

A conformity of the voice and gesture to the subject. 

* "Pronunciation," says Cicero to Herennius, "is a graceful manage- 
ment of the Voice, Countenance, and Gesture." 

"Action," says Cicero, in his Oratore, "is the predominant power in 
eloquence. Without it the best speaker can have no name, and with it 
a middling one may obtain the highest." 

"Pronunciation," says Quintilian, "is called by most authors Action; 
but the former name seems rather to agree with the Voice, and the 
latter with the Gesture," 

Cicero and Quintilian relate, that Demosthenes, being asked what 
was the greatest excellency in oratory, gave the preference to Pronun- 
ciation, and assigned to it the second and third place, until no further 
question was put to him ; by which it appeared that he judged it to be, 
not so much the principal as the only excellency. 

Cioero, in his third book de Oratore, says: "For nature has given 
every passion its peculiar expression in the look, the voice, and the 
gesture; and the whole frame, the look and voice of a man are respon- 
sive to the passions of the mind, as the strings of a musical instrument 
are to the fingers that touch them." 

Quintilian says: "Now as all action, as I said, is divided into two 
parts, Voice and Gesture ; of which one strikes the eyes, the other the 
ears, through which two senses every passion has access to the mind, I 
shall speak first of the Voice, to which the Gesture is supposed to con- 
form itself." 



190 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

What is its object ? 

To transfuse into others our own ideas and emotions. 

How is this to be accomplished ? 

By being moved ourselves with the passions we de- 
sire to excite in others. 

Into how many parts is Pronunciation divided ? 

Two; Voice and Gesture. 

What is Voice ? 

Voice is a kind of sound which influences the pas- 
sions, either by raising or allaying them.* 

* Cicero, in his third book de Oratore, chapter 60, says : " But the 
chief excellence to be admired in a good delivery, is a fine voice. If 
an orator possess not a good voice, it ought, such as it is, to be im- 
proved." And in the same chapter, he says : " Nothing tends more to 
acquire an agreeable voice in speaking than frequently to relax it, by 
passing from one strain to another, and nothing tends more to injure it 
than violent exertion unrelieved by modulation. What gives greater 
pleasure to our ears, and more charm to delivery, than judicious transi- 
tions, variety and change? Therefore, Catulus, you might have heard 
from Licinius, who is your client, a man of learning, and the secretary 
of Gracchus, that Gracchus made use of an ivory flute, which a man 
who stood privately behind him, while he was speaking, touched so 
skilfully, that he immediately struck the proper note when he wanted 
either to quicken or to soften the vehemence of his voice." 

Emphatica, aliaque prsecipuae notre verba, praesertim Antitheta, seu 
invicem respondentia, et tropi figurasqiie insigniores, paulo altiorem vocis 
et tonum et sonum requirunt. — Butler. 

Vox, quatenus ad orationis partes, sit in Exorclio verecunda, in Narra- 
tione aperta, in Propositione clarior, in Conflrmatione fortis, in Confuta- 
tione severior, in Conclusione excitata, quasi parta victoria. — Butler et 
Dugard. 

Vox, ratione affectuum seu passionum, sit in Commiseratione Jlexibilis, 
in Iracundia incitata, in Metu demissa in Voluptate hilirata, in Dolore 
tristis, in blandiendo, fatendo, satisfaciendo, rogando, et suadendo, sub- 
missa, in monendo et promittendo fortis, in consolando blanda, in lau- 
dando, gratias agendo, et similibus Iceta, magnified, et sublimis. — Id. 



PRONUNCIATION. 191 

What does voice comprise ? 

Accent, Emphasis, Tone, and Pause. 

What is Accent ? 

Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice 
on a certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be 
better heard than the rest, or distinguished from them. 

What is meant by Emphasis ? 

A stronger and fuller sound of the voice, by which 
we distinguish some word or words on which we design 
to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect 
the rest of the sentence. 

What relation exists between Accent and Emphasis ? 

Accent has the same relation to words that Emphasis 
has to sentences. 

In what do tones consist ? 

In the modulation of the voice, the notes or varia- 
tions of sound which we employ in public speaking. 

What are Pauses ? 

Pauses, or rests in speaking, are a total cessation of 
the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a 
measurable space of time. 

What is Gesture ? 

The accommodation of the attitude to the several 
parts of a discourse: — "The suiting of the action to 
the word."* 

* "But all these emotions/' says Cicero, in his third book de Oratore, 
chapter 59, "ought to be accompanied with gesture; not theatrical ges- 
ture, limited to particular words, but extended to the whole discourse; 
aiding the sense, not by pointing, but by emphasis, a strong manly 
action, borrowed from the use of arms, or the school of arts, and not 
from stage performers. The hand ought not to saw the air, and the 
fingers in moving should follow the words, and not precede, as it were, 
to point them out. The arm should be stretched forward, as if to 



192 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

How many kinds of Gesture are there ? 

Two : Natural and Imitative. 

What is Natural Gesture ? 

When the actions and motions of the body as natu- 

brandish the bolts of eloquence; and the stamping the foot ought to 
take place, either in the beginning or the end of a debate. But all 
depends upon the face, and all power of the face is centered in the 
eyes. This our old men are the best judges of; for they were not 
lavish of their applause, even to Roscius when he was in a mask. All 
action depends upon the passions, of which the face is the picture and 
the eyes the interpreters. For this is the only part of the body that can 
express all the passions ; nor can any one who looks another way create 
the same emotions. Theophrastus used to apply to one Tauriscus, who 
averted his face from the audience when he was repeating his part, 
the epithet jiversus. Therefore, a great deal consists in the right ma- 
nagement of the eyes ; for the features of the face ought not to be 
altered too much, lest we become ridiculous or disgustful. It is by its 
vividness, or the languor of the eye, by a dejected or a cheerful look, that 
we express the emotions of the heart, and accommodate what we say 
to what we feel. Action is, as it were, the language of the body, and, 
therefore, ought to correspond to the thought." And in the same chap- 
ter, he says : " But nature has given a particular force to all the modifi- 
cations of action ; therefore we see it has great effect upon the ignorant, 
the vulgar, and the greatest upon foreigners w T ho are unacquainted with 
our tongue. Words affect none but him who understands the language ; 
and sentiments that are pointed often escape the uncliscerning. But an 
action expressive of the passions of the mind, is a language universally 
understood: for the same expressions have the same effects in all cir- 
cumstances, and all men know them in others by the same characters 
which express them in themselves." 

The following extracts on Gesture are from Quintilian's Institutes, 
book xi. chapter iii. 

"But the countenance is what is most powerful. By it we appear 
suppliant, menacing, mild, mournful, joyful, proud, submissive. From 
it men hang, as it were, on it they look, and even examine it before we 
speak." 

"A moderate projection of the arm, the shoulders being kept still, 
and the fingers opening as the hand advances, is very becoming for 



PRONUNCIATION. 193 

rally accompany our words as these do the impressions 
of our mind. 

What is Imitative Gesture ? 

When the orator describes some action, or personates 
another speaking. 

continued and smoothly running passages. But when something of 
greater elegance, or of finer fancy, is to be said, as ' the rocks and soli- 
tudes are responsive to the voice ;' then it expatiates to the side, and 
the words come pouring out, as it were, with the gesture. 

"But the hands, without which all gesture would be maimed and 
weak, have a greater variety of motions than can be well expressed ; 
being emulous to express almost every word. Do we not desire with 
them, promise, call, dismiss, threaten, beseech, detest, fear, inquire, and 
deny ? Do they not express joy, sorrow, doubt, confession, penitence, 
measure, abundance, number, and time 1 Do they not excite, restrain, 
prove, admire, and shame? Whence, among the great diversity of lan- 
guages of all nations and people, the hands seem to me the common 
language of all mankind." 

" The hand begins with great propriety on the left side, to rest on the 
right ; but it should appear to be laid down, and not to strike ; though 
in the end it sometimes falls, yet soon to return ; and sometimes re- 
bounds, in the action of denying or admiring. 

" Hence, the ancient masters of art are correct in adding a precept, 
that the hand should begin and rest with the sense. Otherwise the 
gesture would be either before the voice or after it, which would be 
unseemly. Nor should the hand rise higher than the eyes, nor fall 
lower than the breast. 

" The left hand never properly performs gesture alone, but frequently 
accompanies and conforms itself to the motions of the right, whether 
we digest our arguments on our fingers, or show aversion by turning 
out the palms of our hands to the left, or extending them forwards; or 
whether we stretch them out on both sides, either in an attitude of 
making satisfaction, or being suppliants. 

" We must take care that the breast and belly do not project too far. 
The sides ought also to agree with the gesture; for the motion of the 
body is of some effect, and Cicero thinks it does more than the hands 
themselves, as appears by what he says in his Orator: ' Let there be no 
affected motions of the fingers, as of their joints falling in cadence; 

17 



194 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

How is the gesture of an orator to be regulated ? 
By an exact and easy imitation of the operations of 
nature. 

rather let the orator's action proceed from the motion of his whole body, 
and a manly flexibility of his sides.' 

" To strike the thigh, a gesture first supposed to be practised at 
Athens by Cleon, is customary, and becomes indignant emotions, and 
serves to excite the attention of the auditory. Cicero thus censures 
Callidius for omitting it: 'No smiting his forehead; no striking his 
thigh; no, not even a stamp of the foot, the least thing that might be 
naturally expected.' 

"To stamp the foot may occasionally be seasonable, especially as 
Cicero says, in the beginning or end of contests; but, when used too 
often, it makes a man appear silly, and takes off from the party the 
attention and notice of the judge." 

In Actione igitur summum studium duo summi oratores Demosthenes 
et Cicero posuere. Demosthenes speculum grande intuens composuit 
Actionem et gestus corporis, et Satyrum histrionem ad eas artes magis- 
trum adhibuit. Cicero histrionibus, Roscio comcedo, iEsopo tragoedo, 
usus est. Ipsi etiam Socrates, Plato, et Quintilianus probarunt et col- 
laudarunt. — Butler. 

Actio semper sit non modo varia et decora, sed etiam nee nimia nee 
affectata, at naturae congruens. Trunco igitur totius corporis orator 
seipsum moderetur ; Actioque propria comitetur omnes Vocis flexiones 
atque animi motus. — Id. 

Status corporis sit erectus. Humeri debent aequi esse et recti. Brachia 
modice projiciantur, et dextrum potius quam sinistrum faeiat gestum. 
Supplosio pedum parce utatur. Pectus parce feriatur, et femur in 
affectibus vehementioribus. — Cic. 



PRONUNCIATION. 195 



THE FOLLOWING EXAMPLES OF SENTENCES, ORATIONS, 

&c, ARE DESIGNED TO EXERCISE THE STUDENT 

IN PRONUNCIATION. 



Commiseration and Gf-rief.* 

Wretch that I am ! Whither shall I retreat? Whi- 
ther shall I turn me ? To the Capitol ? The Capitol 
streams with my brother's blood. To my family? 
There must I see a wretched, a mournful, and afflicted 
mother ! 

(Cicero, extolling this passage of Gracchus, says: 
" It appears that those words were accompanied with 
such expression in his eyes, voice, and gesture, that 
even his enemies could not refrain from tears.") 

* Horace, in his Art of Poetry, says : " Pathetic accents suit a melan- 
choly countenance; words full of menaces require an angry aspect; 
wanton expressions, a sportive look ; and ■ serious matter, an austere 
one." 

And Cicero, in his third book de Oratore, says: "Anger has a pecu- 
liar pronunciation, which is quick, sharp, and broken. The tone of 
Pity and Grief is different ; it is full, moving, broken, and mournful. 
Fear is low, diffident, and humble. Vehemence demands a strain that 
is intense, strong, and majestically threatening. Pleasure is diffusive, 
soft, tender, cheerful, and gay. Uneasiness is of another sort; it is 
oppressive without commiseration, and its tone is grave and uniform." 



196 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 



II. 



Entreaty. 

Fathers ! Senators of Rome ! the arbiters of the 
world ! to you I fly for refuge from the murderous fury 
of Jugurtha. By your affection for your children ; by 
your love for your country; by your own virtues; by 
the majesty of the Roman Commonwealth ! by all that 
is sacred, and all that is dear to you — deliver a wretched 
prince from undeserved, unprovoked injury; and save 
the kingdom of Numidia, which is your own property, 
from being the prey of violence, usurpation, and cruelty, 
— Sail 



III. 

Anger. — Threatening. 

Satan's Speech to Death stopping his passage through the gate of Hell ; 
with the answer. 

Whence, and what art thou, execrable shape ! Quest. 
That dar'st, tho' grim and terrible, advance with 

Thy miscreated front athwart my way anger. 

To yonder gates ? through them I mean to pass, Resol. 
That be assur'd, without leave ask'd of thee: Contempt. 
Retire; or taste thy folly, and learn by proof, Threat- 
Hell-born ! not to contend with sp'rits of Heav'n. ening. 
To whom the goblin, full of wrath, replied: 
Art thou that traitor angel, art thou he Anger. 

Who first broke peace in Heav'n, and faith, till then 



PKONUNCIATION, 197 

Unbroken, and in proud, rebellious arms, 
Drew after him the third part of Heav'n's sons 
Conjur'd against the Highest, for which both thou 
And they, outcast from God, art here condemn'd 
To waste eternal days in woe and pain ? 
And reckon'st thou thyself with sp'rits of Heav'n, Qon- 
Hell-doom'd! and breath'st defiance here and scorn, temt 
Where I reign king, and, to enrage thee more, with ang, 
Thy king and lord ? Back to thy punishment, Pride. 
False fugitive! and to thy speed add wings, Threaten- 
Lest, with a whip of scorpions, I pursue ing. 

Thy ling 'ring, or with one stroke of this dart 
Strange horror seize thee, and pangs unfelt before. 

Milt. Par. Lost, b. ii. 601, 



IV, 

Anxiety. — Resolution, 

CATOS SOLILOQUY. 

Cato sitting in a thoughtful posture. In his hand Plato's book on the 
immortality of the soul. A drawn sword on the table by him. After 
a long pause, he lays down the book, and speaks. 

It must be so — Plato, thou reason'st well! Deep contmp, 
Else whence this pleasing hope, this fond desire, a Comf. 
This longing after immortality ? Desire. 

Or whence this secret dread, and inward horror 
Of falling into nought ? Why shrinks the soul Fear. 

a " This fond desire" may be spoken with the right' hand laid on the 
breast. 

17* 



198 THE AKT OF RHETORIC. 

Back on herself, and startles at destruction ? 
'Tis the Divinity that stirs within us; Awe. 

'Tis Heav'n itself that points out an hereafter, 
And intimates eternity to man. 

b Eternity! thou pleasing* dreadfulf thought! Satisfac. 
Through what variety of untried being, fApprehen. 
Through what new scenes and changes must we pass ? 
The wide, th' unbounded prospect lies before me; 
But shadows, clouds, and darkness, rest upon it. Anx. 
% Here will I hold: §If there's a pow'r above us, %Cour. 
(And that there is, all nature cries aloud § Ven. 

Through all her works,) He must delight in virtue, 
And that which he delights in must be happy. Satisfac. 
But when! or where! — ||This world was made for Caesar. 
I'm weary of conjectures. — TfThis must end them. \\Anx. 
[Laying his hand on his sword.) ^Oour. 
Thus am I doubly armed ; c my death and life; Firmness. 
My bane and antidote; are both before me: 
This, in a moment, brings me to an end; Appre. 

But this informs me I shall never die: Comf. 

The soul, d secur'd in her existence, smiles Noble. 

At the drawn dagger, and defies its point. Pride. 

The stars e shall fade away, the sun himself Triumph. 

b " Eternity ! thou pleasing," &c, requires an eye fixed, with profound 
thoughtfulness, on one point, throughout this line. 

e ' : My death and life," &c. ; long pauses between, and pointing, or 
looking at the sword in pronouncing "my death," and at the book in 
pronouncing "and life," and so in "my bane and antidote," and in the 
two following lines. 

d "The soul," &c, may be pronounced with the right hand laid on 
the breast. 

e " The stars," &c, may be spoken with the eyes raised toward hea» 
ven, and the arms moderately spread. 



PRONUNCIATION. 199 

Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years; 
f But thou shalt nourish in immortal youth, 
g Unhurt amidst the war of elements, 
h The wreck of matter and the crush of worlds. 

Addison. 



v. 

Doubting. — Vexation. — Serious Reflection. 
HAMLET'S SOLILOQUY. 

To he — or not to he — that is the question: Anxiety. 
Whether 'tis nohler in the mind to suffer 
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune; 
Or to take arms against a host of troubles, Cour. 

And, by opposing, end them? — *But to die — *Deep 
To sleep — No more?— And by a sleep to end thoughtfss. 
The heart-ache, and the thousand natural shocks Vex. 
That flesh is heir to — 'tis a consummation [fulness. 
Devoutly to be wish'd — fTo die — To sleep — \Thouglit- 
To sleep ! JPerchance to dream — A startling thought — 
For in that sleep of death what dreams may come, %Ap- 
When we have shuffled off this mortal coil, \j>reh. 

Must give us pause. — There's the respect 
That makes calamity of so long life: 
For who would bear the whips and scorns of time, Vex. 
Th' oppressor's wrong, the proud man's contumely, 

f " But thou shalt flourish," &c, the right hand upon the breast. 

e "Unhurt," &c, the arms spread again as before. 

h ''The crush," &c, the bands brought together with force. 



200 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

The pangs of love despised, the law's delay, Anguish. 

The insolence of office, and the spurns 

That patient merit of the unworthy takes; Meek. 

When he himself might his quietus make 

With a bare bodkin ? who would bend to earth, Cour. 

And groan and sweat under a weary life, Comp. 

But that the dread of something after death Fear. 

(That undiscovered country, from whose bourn 

No traveller returns) puzzles the will, 

And makes us rather bear those ills we have, 

Than fly to others that we know not of. 

Thus conscience does make cowards of us all: 

And thus the native hue of resolution 

Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought; 

And enterprises of great pith and moment, 

With this regard their currents turn awry, 

And lose the name of action, 

Sliakspeare._ 



VI. 

BRUTUSS ORATION ON CiESAR'S DEATH. 

Romans, countrymen, and lovers ! — Hear me for my 
cause; and be silent, that ye may hear ! Believe me, 
for mine honor; and have respect to mine honor, that 
you may believe! Censure me in your wisdom; and 
awake your senses, that you may the better judge ! If 
there be any in this assembly, any dear friend of 
Caesar's— to him I say, that Brutus' love to Caesar was 
no less than his, If, then, that friend demand why 



PRONUNCIATION. 201 

Brutus rose against Caesar, this is my answer: Not 
that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more. 
Had you rather Caesar were living, and die all slaves, 
than that Caesar were dead and live all freemen ? 

As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was for- 
tunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honor him: 
but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. There are tears 
for his love, joy for his fortune, honor for his valor, and 
death for his ambition. 

Who's here so base that would be a bondman ? If 
any, speak; for him have I offended. Who's here so 
rude that would not be a Roman ? If any, speak ; for 
him have I offended. Who's here so vile that will not 
love his country? If any, speak; for him have I 
offended. I pause for a reply — Since none is made, 
then none have I offended, 

I have done no more to Caesar than you shall do to 
Brutus. The question of his death is enrolled in the 
Capitol: his glory not extenuated, wherein he was 
worthy; nor his offences enforced, for which he suffered 
death. 

Here comes his body, mourned by Mark Antony: 
who, though he had no hand in his death, shall receive 
the benefit of his dying, a place in the commonwealth; 
as which of you shall not ? With this I depart ; that, 
as I slew my best lover for the good of Rome, I have 
the same dagger for myself when it shall please my 
country to need my death. 

Shakspeare, Jul, Cm., Act in. 



202 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 



VII. 



PHOCIAS' SOLILOQUY. 

Farewell, and think of death ! — Was it not so ? 
Do murderers, then, preach morality ? 
But, how to think of, what the living know not, 
And the dead cannot, or else may not, tell ?— 
What art thou, thou great mysterious terror ! 
The way to thee we know; diseases, famine, 
Sword, fire, and all thy ever open gates, 
Which day and night stand ready to receive us. 
But, what's beyond them ? — Who will draw that veil ? 
Yet death's not there: — No, 'tis a point of time", 
The verge 'twixt mortal and immortal being: 
It mocks our thought ! — On this side all is life ; 
And when we've reach'd it, in that very instant 
'Tis past the thinking of !•— ! if it be 
The pangs, the throes, the agonizing struggle, 
When soul and body part, sure I have felt it. 
And there's no more to fear. 



¥111. 

DOUGLAS' ACCOUNT OF HIMSELF. 

My name is Norval. On the Grampian hills 
My father feeds his flocks; a frugal swain, 
Whose constant cares were to increase his store, 
And keep his only son, myself, at home: 
For I had heard of battles, and I long'd 



PKONUNCIATIOST. 203 

To follow to the field some warlike lord ; 

And heav'n soon granted what my sire denied. 

This moon, which rose last night, round as my shield, 

Had not yet fill'd her horns, when, by her light, 

A hand of fierce barbarians, from the hills, 

Rush'd, like a torrent, down upon the vale, 

Sweeping our flocks and herds. The shepherds fled 

For safety and for succor. I alone, 

With bended bow, and quiver full of arrows, 

Hover'd about the enemy, and mark'd 

The road they took, then hasted to my friends; 

Whom, with a troop of fifty chosen men, 

I met advancing. The pursuit I led, 

Till we o'ertook the spoil-encumber'd foe. 

We fought — and conquered. Ere a sword was drawn, 

An arrow from my bow had pierc'd their chief, 

Who wore that day the arms which now I wear. 

Returning home in triumph, I disdain'd* 

The shepherd's slothful life; and, having heard 

That our good king had summon'd his bold peers 

To lead their warriors to the Carron side, 

I left my father's house, and took with me 

A chosen servant to conduct my steps : 

Yon trembling coward, who forsook his master. 

Journeying with this intent I pass'd these towers; 

And, Heav'n-directed, came this day to do 

The happy deed that gilds my humble name. 



204 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 



IX. 



CATOS SENATE. 

Sem. Rome still survives in this assembled senate ! 
Let us remember we are Cato's friends, 
And act like men who claim that glorious title. 

Luc. Cato will soon be here, and open to us 
Th' occasion of our meeting. Hark, he comes ! 

(^4. sound of trumpets. 
May all the guardian gods of Rome direct him ! 

Enter Cato. 

Cato. Fathers, we once again are met in council; 
Caesar's approach has summon'd us together, 
And Rome attends her fate from our resolves. 
How shall we treat this bold, aspiring man ? 
Success still follows him, and backs his crimes ; 
Pharsalia gave him Rome; Egypt has since 
Receiv'd his yoke, and the whole Nile is Caesar's. 
Why should I mention Juba's overthrow, 
And Scipio's death ? Numidia's burning sands 
Still smoke with blood. 'Tis time we should decree 
What course to take. Our foe advances on us, 
And envies us even Libya's sultry deserts. 
Fathers, pronounce your thoughts: are they still fix'd 
To hold it out, and fight it to the last ? 
Or are your hearts subdued at length, and wrought, 
By time and ill success, to a submission ? 
Sempronius, speak. 

Sem. My voice is still for war. 
Gods ! can a Roman senate long debate 



PRONUNCIATION. 205 

Which of the two to choose — slav'ry or death ? 

No; let us rise at once, gird on our swords, 

And, at the head of our remaining troops, 

Attack the foe, break through the thick array 

Of his throng'd legions, and charge home upon him. 

Perhaps some arm, more lucky than the rest, 

May reach his heart, and free the world from bondage. 

Rise, fathers, rise ! 'tis Rome demands your help ; 

Rise, and revenge her slaughter'd citizens, 

Or share their fate ! The corpse of half her senate 

Manure the fields of Thessaly, while we 

Sit here delib'rating in cold debates, 

If we should sacrifice our lives to honor, 

Or wear them out in servitude and chains. 

Rouse up, for shame ! Our brothers of Pharsalia 

Point at their wounds, and cry aloud — To battle ! 

Great Pompey's shade complains that we are slow; 

And Scipio's ghost walks unrevenged among us. 

Gato. Let not a torrent of impetuous zeal 
Transport thee thus beyond the bounds of reason: 
True fortitude is seen in great exploits 
That justice warrants, and that wisdom guides; 
All else is tow'ring frenzy and distraction. 
Are not the lives of those who draw the sword 
In Rome's defence, entrusted to our care ? 
Should we thus lead them to a field of slaughter, 
Might not th' impartial world with reason say, 
We lavish'd at our death the blood of thousands, 
To grace our fall and make our ruin glorious ? 
Lucius, we next would know what's your opinion. 

Luc. My thoughts, I must confess, are turn'd on 
peace. 
18 



206 THE AKT OF KHETOKIC. 

Already have our quarrels fill'd the world 

With widows and with orphans: Scythia mourns 

Our guilty wars, and earth's remotest regions 

Lie half unpeopled by the feuds of Rome: 

; Tis time to sheathe the sword, and spare mankind. 

It is not Caesar, but the gods, my fathers, 

The gods declare against us, and repel 

Our vain attempts. To urge the foe to battle 

(Prompted by blind revenge and wild despair), 

Were to refuse the awards of Providence, 

And not to rest in Heav'n's determination. 

Already have we shown our love to Rome, 

Now let us show submission to the gods. 

We took up arms, not to revenge ourselves, 

But free the commonwealth ; when this end fails, 

Arms have no further use. Our country's cause, 

That drew our swords, now wrests 'em from our hands, 

And bids us not delight in Roman blood, 

Unprofitably shed. What men could do, 

Is done already: heav'n and earth will witness, 

If Rome must fall, that we are innocent. 

Sem. This smooth discourse, and mild behavior, oft 
Conceal a traitor. Something whispers me 
All is not right. — Cato, beware of Lucius. 

{Aside to Cato.) 

Cato. Let us appear not rash nor diffident; 
Immod'rate valor swells into a fault; 
And fear, admitted into public councils, 
Betrays like treason. Let us shun them both. 
Fathers, I cannot see that our affairs 
Are grown thus desp'rate; we have bulwarks round us; 
Within our walls are troops inur'd to toil 



PRONUNCIATION. 207 

In Afric's heats, and season'd to the sun; 
Numidia's spacious kingdom lies behind us, 
Ready to rise at its young prince's call. 
While there is hope, do not distrust the gods: 
But wait, at least, till Caesar's near approach 
Force us to yield. 'Twill never he too late 
To sue for chains and own a conqueror. 
Why should Rome fall a moment ere her time ? 
No : let us draw her term of freedom out 
In its full length, and spin it to the last; 
So shall we gain still one day's liberty: 
And let me perish, but in Cato's judgment, 
A day, an hour, of virtuous liberty 
Is worth a whole eternity in bondage. 

Enter Marcus. 

Mar. Fathers, this moment, as I watch'd the gate, 
Lodg'd on my post, a herald is arriv'd 
From Caesar's camp, and with him comes old Decius, 
The Roman knight; he carries in his looks 
Impatience, and demands to speak with Cato. 

Goto. By your permission, fathers bid him enter. 

(Exit Marcus.) 
Decius was once my friend; but other prospects 
Have loos'd those ties, and bound them fast to Caesar. 
His message may determine our resolves. 

Enter Decius. 

Dec. Caesar sends health to Cato 

Cato. Could he send it 
To Cato's slaughter'd friends, it would be welcome. 
Are not your orders to address the senate ? 



208 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Dec. My business is with Cato ; Caesar sees 
The straits to which you're driven; and, as he knows 
Cato's high worth, is anxious for your life. 

Cato. My life is grafted on the fate of Rome. 
Would he save Cato ? Bid him spare his country. 
Tell your dictator this; and tell him, Cato 
Disdains a life which he has pow'r to offer. 

Dec. Rome and her senators submit to Caesar; 
Her gen'rals and her consuls are no more, 
Who check'd his conquests and denied his triumphs. 
Why will not Cato be this Caesar's friend ? 

Cato. Those very reasons thou hast urg'd, forbid it. 

Dec. Cato, I've orders to expostulate, 
And reason with you as from friend to friend: 
Think on the storm that gathers o'er your head, 
And threatens ev'ry hour to burst upon it. 
Still may you stand high in your country's honors: 
Do but comply, and make your peace with Caesar. 
Rome will rejoice and cast its eyes on Cato 
As on the second of mankind. 

Cato. No more: 
I must not think of life on such conditions. 

Dec. Caesar is well acquainted with your virtues, 
And therefore sets this value on your life. 
Let him but know the price of Cato's friendship, 
And name your terms. 

Cato. Bid him disband his legions, 
Restore the commonwealth to liberty, 
Submit his actions to the public censure, 
And stand the judgment of a Roman senate. 
Bid him do this, and Cato is his friend. 

Dec. Cato, the world talks loudly of your wisdom 



PRONUNCIATION. 209 

Goto. Nay, more — though Cato's voice was ne'er em- 
ploy'd 
To clear the guilty, and to varnish crimes, 
Myself will mount the rostrum in his favor, 
And strive to gain his pardon from the people. 

Dec. A style like this becomes a conqueror. 

Goto. Decius, a style like this becomes a Roman. 

Dec. What is a Roman that is Caesar's foe ? 

Goto. Greater than Caesar : he's a friend to virtue. 

Dec. Consider, Cato, you're in Utica, 
And at the head of your own little senate; 
You don't now thunder in the Capitol, 
With all the mouths of Rome to second you. 

Goto, Let him consider that, who drives us hither. 
'Tis Caesar's sword has made Rome's senate little, 
And thinn'd its ranks. Alas ! thy dazzled eye 
Beholds this man in a false glaring light, 
Which conquest and success have thrown upon him; 
Didst thou but view him right, thou'dst see him black 
With murder, treason, sacrilege, and crimes 
That strike my soul with horror but to name 'em. 
I know thou look'st on me as on a wretch 
Beset with ills, and cover'd with misfortunes; 
But, by the gods I swear, millions of worlds 
Should never buy me to be like that Caesar. 

Dec. Does Cato send this answer back to Caesar. 
For all his generous cares and proffer 'd friendship ? 

Goto. His cares for me are insolent and vain: 
Presumptuous man ! the gods take care of Cato. 
Would Caesar show the greatness of his soul ? 
Bid him employ his care for these my friends, 
And make good use of his ill-gotten pow'er 

18* 



210 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

By shelt'ring men much better than himself. 

Dec. Your high unconquered heart makes you forget 
You are a man. You rush on your destruction. 
But I have done. When I relate hereafter 
The tale of this unhappy embassy, 
All Rome will be in tears. 



BRUTUS AND CASSIUS. 

Cas. That you have wrong'd me doth appear in this: 
You have condemn'd and noted Lucius Pella 
For taking bribes here of the Sardians; 
Wherein my letter (praying on his side, 
Because I knew the man) was slighted off. 

Bru. You wrong'd yourself to write in such a case. 

Cas. In such a time as this, it is not meet 
That ev'ry nice offence should bear its comment. 

Bru. Let me tell you, Cassius, you yourself 
Are much condemn'd to have an itching palm, 
To sell and mart your offices for gold, 
To undeservers. 

Cas. I an itching palm ? 
You know that you are Brutus that speak this, 
Or, by the gods, this speech were else your last. 

Bru. The name of Cassius honors this corruption, 
And chastisement doth therefore hide its head. 

Cas. Chastisement ! 

Bru. Remember March, the ides of March remem- 
ber ! 



PEONUNCIATION. 211 

Did not great Julius bleed for justice sake ? 
What villain touch' d his body, that did stab, 
And not for justice ? What, shall one of us, 
That struck the foremost man of all this world, 
But for supporting robbers; shall we now 
Contaminate our fingers with base bribes ? 
And sell the mighty space of our large honors 
For so much trash as may be grasped thus ? — 
I had rather be a dog, and bay the moon, 
Than such a Roman. 

Cas. Brutus, bay not me. 

I'll not endure it: you forget yourself, 
To hedge me in ; I am a soldier, I, 
Older in practice, abler than yourself 
To make conditions. 

Bru. Go to ; you're not, Cassius. 

Cas. I am. 

Bru. I say you are not. 

Cas. Urge me no more ; I shall forget myself — 
Have mind upon your health: tempt me no further ! 

Bru. Away, slight man ! 

Cas. Is't possible ? 

Bru. Hear me, for I will speak. 

Must I give way and room to your rash choler ? 
Shall I be frighted when a madman stares ? 

Cas. gods ! ye gods ! Must I endure all this ? 

Bru. All this ? aye, more. Fret till your proud 
heart break ; 
Go, show your slaves how choleric you are, 
And make your bondmen tremble. Must I budge ? 
Must I observe you ? Must I stand and crouch 
Under your testy humor ? By the gods, 



212 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

You shall digest the venom of your spleen, 
Though it do split you : for, from this day forth, 
I'll use you for my mirth, yea, for my laughter, 
When you are waspish. 

Cas. Is it come to this ? 

Bru. You say you are a better soldier : 
Let it appear so ; make your vaunting true, 
And it shall please me well : for mine own part, 
I shall be glad to learn of noble men. 

Cas. You wrong me every way; you wrong me, 
Brutus : 
I said an older soldier, not a better; 
Did I say better ? 

Bru. If you did, I care not. 

Cas. When Caesar liv'd he durst not thus have mov'd 
me. 

Bru. Peace, peace, you durst not so have tempted 
him. 

Cas. I durst not ! 

Bru. No. 

Cas. What ? Durst not tempt him ! 

Bru. For your life you durst not. 

Cas. Do not presume too much upon my love ; 
I may do that I shall be sorry for. 

Bru. You have done that you should be sorry for. 
There is no terror, Cassius, in your threats; 
For I am arm'd so strong in honesty, 
That they pass by me as the idle wind, 
Which I respect not. I did send to you 
For certain sums of gold, which you denied me: 
For I can raise no money by vile means: 
By heaven, I had rather coin my heart, 



PRONUNCIATION. 213 

And drop my blood for drachmas, than to wring 

From the hard hands of peasants their vile trash, 

By any indirection. I did send 

To you for gold to pay my legions, 

Which you denied me : was that done like Cassius ? 

Should I have answer'd Caius Cassius so ? 

When Marcus Brutus grows so covetous, 

To lock such rascal counters from his friends, 

Be ready, gods, with all your thunderbolts ! 

Dash him to pieces ! 

Cas. I denied you not. 

Bru. You did. 

Cas. I did not: — he was but a fool 

That brought my answer back. — Brutus hath riv'd my 

heart ; 
A friend should bear a friend's infirmities, 
But Brutus makes mine greater than they are. 

Bru. I do not ; still you practise them on me. 

Cas. You love me not. 

Bru. I do not like your faults. 

Cas. A friendly eye could never see such faults. 

Bru. A flatterer's would not, though they do appear 
As huge as high Olympus. 

Cas. Come, Antony, and young Octavius, come ! 
Revenge yourselves alone on Cassius, 
For Cassius is a-weary of the world: 
Hated by one he loves: brav'd by his brother: 
Check'd like a bondman: all his faults observ'd, 
Set in a note-book, learn'd and conn'd by rote, 
To cast them in my teeth. 0, I could weep 
My spirit from mine eyes ! — There is my dagger, 
And here my naked breast — within, a heart 



214 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

Dearer than Plutus' mine, richer than gold: 

If that thouneed'st a Roman's, take it forth: 

I, that denied thee gold, will give my heart: 

Strike, as thou didst at Caesar; for, I know 

When thou didst hate him worst, thou lov'dst him better 

Than ever thou lov'dst Cassius. 

Bru. Sheath your dagger. 
Be angry when you will, it shall have scope : 
Do what you will, dishonor shall be humor. 
Cassius, you are yoked with a lamb 
That carries anger as the flint bears fire; 
Who, much enforced, shows a hasty spark, 
And straight is cold again. 

Cas. Hath Cassius liv'd 

To be but mirth and laughter to his Brutus, 
When grief, and blood ill-temper'd vexeth him ? 

Bru. When I spoke that I was ill temper'd too. 

Cas. Do you confess so much ? Give me your hand. 

Bru. And my heart too. 

Cas. Brutus ? — 

Bru. What's the matter ? 

Cas. Have you not love enough to bear with me, 
When that rash humor, which my mother gave me, 
Makes me forgetful ? 

Bru. Yes, Cassius; and from henceforth, 
When you are over-earnest with your Brutus, 
He'll think your mother chides, and leave you so. 



PKONUNCIATION. 215 



XL 



THE PARTING OF BRUTUS AND CASSIUS. 

Bru. No, Cassius, no : think not, thou noble Roman, 
That ever Brutus will go bound to Rome: 
He bears too great a mind. But this same day 
Must end that work the ides of March begun; 
And whether we shall meet again I know not. 
Therefore our everlasting farewell take: — 
Forever, and forever, farewell, Cassius ! 
If we do meet again, why we shall smile; 
If not, why then this parting was well made. 

Oas. Forever, and forever, farewell, Brutus ! 
If we do meet again, we'll smile indeed; 
If not, 'tis true, this parting was well made. 

Bru. Why, then, lead on. — 0, that a man might 
know 
The end of this day's business ere it come ! 
But it sufficeth that the day will end, 
And then the end is known. 



XII. 



SOLILOQUY OF DICK THE APPRENTICE. 

Thus far we run before the wind. — An apothecary ! 
Make an apothecary of me ! — What, cramp my genius 
over a pestle and mortar ; or mew me up in a shop, 
with an alligator stuffed, and a beggarly account of 
empty boxes ! To be culling simples, and constantly 



216 THE ART OF RHETORIC. 

adding to the bills of mortality ! — No ! no ! It will 
be much better to be pasted up in capitals, The part of 
Romeo by a young gentleman who never appeared on 
any stage before I My ambition fires at the thought. — 
But hold; mayn't I run some chance of failing in my 
attempt ? Hissed — pelted — laughed at — not admitted 
into the green room; — that will never do — down, busy 
devil, down, down; try it again — loved by the women 
— envied by the men — applauded by the pit, clapped 
by the gallery, admired by the boxes. " Dear colonel, 
isn't he a charming creature ? My lord, don't you like 
him of all things ? — Makes love like an angel ? — What 
an eye he has ! — Fine legs ! — I shall certainly go to 
his benefit." — Celestial sounds ! — And then I'll get in 
with all the painters, and have myself put up in every 
print shop — in the character of Macbeth ! " This is a 
sorry sight." (Stands an attitude.) In the character 
of Richard: " Give me another horse! Bind up my 
wounds." These will do rarely — And then I have a 
chance of getting well married. — glorious thought ! 
I will enjoy it, though but in fancy. But what's 
o'clock? — it must be almost nine. I'll away at once; 
this is club-night — the spouters are all met — little 
think they I'm in town — they'll be surprised to see me ; 
off I go ; ' and then for my assignation with my master 
Gargle's daughter. 

Limbs, do your office, and support me well: 
Bear me but to her, then fail me if you can. 



BOOK II 



19 



THE 

ELEMENTS OF ORATORY, 

METHODICALLY ARRANGED: 

CHIEFLY FROM THE ANCIENT GREEK AND 
ROMAN RHETORICAL WRITERS: 

FROM THE STUDENT'S ENTRANCE INTO THE 

SCHOOL OF ORATORY 

TO HIS ADMISSION TO THE 

FORUM, THE SENATE, AND THE ASSEMBLIES 
OF THE PEOPLE. 



INTRODUCTION 



The Greeks attributed the invention of Rhetoric to 
Mercury; and hence they designated him "e^?, which 
radically signifies to speaJc. And the inhabitants of 
Lystra, in consequence of the cure of the impotent 
man by Barnabas and Paul, called the former Jupiter, 
and the latter Mercury, "because he was the chief 
speaker." 

But to pass over the legendary fictions of Pagan 
theology, no satisfactory account can be given to whom 
the origin of this art is to be ascribed. Its first linea- 
ments, as Aristotle justly observes, were, no doubt, 
extremely rude and imperfect. Pausanias, in his de- 
scription of Greece, says that Pittheus, the uncle of 
Theseus, who flourished about twelve hundred years 
before the Christian era, taught it at Trsezene, a city 
of Peloponnesus. Be this, however, as it may, it was 
certainly held in high estimation at the time of the 
Trojan war; otherwise Homer would never have given 
such unbounded applause to the eloquent speeches of 
Ulysses and Nestor. And in addition to this circum- 
stance, the principal tropes and figures which are now 
used may be found in that sublime and distinguished 
writer. 

19* 



222 INTRODUCTION. 

Of the orators who flourished from the Trojan down 
to the Peloponnesian war, no particular mention is 
made in history. But as eloquence then became the 
means by which the most obscure and indigent indi- 
vidual might rise to the highest post of honor and 
influence, a multitude of orators arose about that 
period. Of these Corax and Tisias,* of Sicily, laid 
down rules for the methodical arrangement of a dis- 
course, and the artificial adjustment of its particular 
parts. Gorgias,f of Leontium, the pupil of Empedo- 
cles, succeeded these. Diodorus Siculus says that he 
was the first Avho used studied figures of speech and 
labored antithesis of equal length and the same termi- 
nation. Thrasymachus, of Chalcedon, Protagoras, of 
Abdera, Prodicus of Cea, and Theodoras of Byzan- 
tium, as also AntiphonJ and Polycrates, were his co- 
temporaries; and all contributed to the improvement of 
this art. Quintilian says, that Protagoras, Gorgias, 
Prodicus, and Thrasymachus, were the first who treated 

* "This he confirmed by the example of Corax and Tisias, who ap- 
pear to have been the inventors of, and leading men in this art." — Cic. 
de QraL, lib. i. cap. 20. 

Corax and Tisias were cotemporary with Hiero of Syracuse, 475 
years before Christ. 

t Gorgias was a Sicilian, and father of the Sophists. He was held 
in such esteem throughout Greece, that a statue was erected to his 
honor in the temple of Apollo at Delphos, of solid gold. Gorgias was 
at the head of the embassy which the Leontines sent to Athens to 
solicit assistance against the Syracusans. In the first audience he had 
of the Athenians his eloquence so enchanted that people that they were 
unfortunately prevailed upon to engage in the Sicilian war. 

J Antiphon, the Athenian, who composed the first judicial oration, 
wrote rules for this new manner of composition, and had the reputation 
of pleading extremely well in his own defence. — Qiiint., lib. iii. cap. 1. 



INTRODUCTION. 223 

of eommo?i-places, and exhibited their use for the in- 
vention of arguments upon every subject. 

Posterior to these arose Isocrates, the scholar of 
Gorgias. The style of Gorgias was formed into short 
sentences, composed generally of two members ba- 
lanced against each other. The style of Isocrates,* on 
the contrary, was swelling and full; and he is said to 
have been the first who introduced the method of com- 
posing in regular periods, which had a studied music 
and harmonious cadence. It was the celebrity of Iso- 
crates which induced the far-famed Aristotle to write 
his " Institutions of Rhetoric:" a work universally ad- 
mitted to be the best and most complete of any on the 
same subject in the Greek language. Quintilian says, 
that Aristotle was often heard to repeat a verse of the 
tragedy of Philoctetes, intimating that " it was a shame 
to be silent and suffer Isocrates to speak. "f 

Lysias and Isaeus belong to this age. Lysias was 

* Twenty-one of his orations are extant. He was engaged ten years 
in composing his oration entitled the " Panegyric ■." 

"f* " Aristotle, seeing the success of Isocrates by having bis school 
full of men of quality, whereas he had transferred his lectures from 
civil causes and public disputes to an empty elegance of expression, 
suddenly changed his form of teaching, and pronounced, with a little 
variation, a line relating to Philoctetes, where it is said, that it was a 
shame to be silent and hear Barbarians speak; Aristotle said, and hear 
Isocrates speak. v — Cic. de Orat., lib. iii. cap. 35. 

A ' <r /C» 5V °"W7rav Xa * Ic-ox.ea.Tnv lav Xeyslv. 

Most commentators are mistaken in supposing this verse to be in the 
Philoctetes of Sophocles. In that tragedy, whoever was the author, 
Philoctetes says : " It was shameful for him to be silent, and let bar- 
barians speak;" Aj^jov etomeiVj (Sa^a^u; b' lav Xsyetv. Aristotle applied 
it to Isocrates, but in another sense. 



224 INTRODUCTION. 

the model of that style which the ancient rhetoricians 
called "ya.a$u£oj/ 7.oyo»>," the polished style; and hence 
Cicero designates him venustissimum orator em.* Isseus 
was the pupil of Lysias, and the first who applied elo- 
quence to political or state affairs, in which he was fol- 
lowed by his celebrated scholar Demosthenes. 

In this age Grecian eloquence appeared in its meri- 
dian. Demosthenes, by indefatigable industry, by a 
surprising genius, and a patriotic love for his country, 
became one of the greatest orators that ever existed — 
an orator who was an honor to humanity, and whose 
name shall descend with imperishable lustre to the 
latest posterity. The style of this prince of Grecian 
eloquence is concise, nervous, and vehement. " Our 
Demosthenes," says Longinus, " uttering every sen- 
tence with such force, precipitation, strength, and vehe- 
mence, that it seems to be all fire, and bears down 
everything before it, may be justly compared to a 
thunderbolt, or a hurricane, "f 

Subsequent to the time of Demosthenes, the manly 
and sensible eloquence of the Greeks degenerated into 
subtilty and sophistry, Demetrius Phalereus, the pupil 
of Theophrastus, who lived in the time of Alexander 
the Great, was an orator of considerable eminence, but 
Cicero describes him as a flowery rather than a natural 
persuasive writer. 

From this period down to the Christian era, Quin- 
tilian enumerates several rhetoricians; among whom 

* Plutarch says, that four hundred and twenty-five orations were 
formerly exhibited under the name of Lysias j of these only thirty-four 
are now extant. 

■j" Sixty-one orations are extant under the name of Demosthenes. 



INTRODUCTION. 225 

were Hermagoras, Athenaeus, and afterwards Apollo- 
nius Molo, the preceptor of Caesar and Cicero, Caecilius, 
and the far-famed Dionysius of Halicarnassus. But 
the most celebrated, and noted for the greatest number 
of scholars, were Apollodorus of Pergamus, the pre- 
ceptor of Augustus Caesar at Apollonia; and Theo- 
doras, of Gadara, who called himself a Rhodian, whose 
lectures Tiberias Caesar is reported to have attended 
diligently during his retreat in that island. Since the 
days of Dionysius, the only Greek orators of celebrity 
were Hermogenes, and Longinus, the author of a Treat- 
ise on the Sublime; a writer of such pre-eminent merit 
that his cotemporaries appointed him judge of all the 
ancient authors: and whatever inferior critics blamed, 
or whatever they commended, was received or rejected 
by the public only as it met with the approbation of 
Longinus, or was confirmed and ratified by his sove- 
reign decision. 

The Romans, for several ages, were almost continu- 
ally engaged in military affairs; and as they supposed 
that the cultivation of oratory would have a tendency 
to allure their minds from martial achievements to an 
indolent and effeminate manner of life, they therefore 
manifested an inveterate prejudice against its introduc- 
tion. For in the year of their city 592, when, through 
the medium of the Greeks, the liberal arts were intro- 
duced into Italy, the senate passed a decree, directing 
all philosophers and rhetoricians to depart from Rome. 
But on the arrival of the Athenian ambassadors, Car- 
neades the Academic, Critolaus the Peripatetic, and 
Diogenes the Stoic, a few years subsequent to the pro- 



226 INTRODUCTION. 

navigation of this decree, the Roman youths were so 
charmed with the eloquence of their harangues, that it 
was found impracticable, any longer, to counteract its 
dissemination. The era of Roman eloquence may, 
therefore, be dated from the subjugation of Greece by 
Mummius, the consul, about a hundred and forty-six 
years before Christ. 

Gratia capta ferum viciorem cepit, et artes 
Intulit agresti Latio* 

Seneca says, that Lucius Plotinus, a Gaul, was the 
first who taught rhetoric, in Latin, at Rome, and that 
Blandus, of the equestrian order, was the first Roman 
who engaged in this profession. Quintilian says that 
Cato, the censor, was the first writer on oratory among 
the Romans; and although Cicero, in his work " De 
claris Oratoribus," represents them as having been pos- 
sessed of considerable eloquence, yet he admits that it 
was "Asperum et horridum genus dicendi," a rude and 
harsh strain of speech. 

Subsequent to the time of Cato arose Crassus and 
Antonius. It was owing to the latter of these, says 
Cicero, that Rome might boast herself a rival even to 
Greece in the art of eloquence. And in his three 
books " De Oratore," and other rhetorical productions, 
he attributes the highest commendation to these dis- 
tinguished orators. 

In the same age, though somewhat later than the 
orators above mentioned, flourished the celebrated 

* Hor., lib. ii. epist. 1. 



INTRODUCTION. 227 

Cicero. In fame and reputation he far surpassed all his 
cotemporaries. His inventive genius, his artful and me- 
thodical arrangement of arguments, his melodious struc- 
ture, and disposition of periods, his peculiar success in 
moving the soft and tender passions, and his splendor 
and morality of sentiment, all contribute to render his 
works the standard of popular oratory.* 

The last rhetorical writer of distinguished reputation 
among the Romans was Quintilian. His Institutions 
exhibit a very great degree of accurate and refined 
taste, and are composed with such exactness and judg- 
ment, that they are generally admitted to be the most 
useful and the most instructive production on the sub- 
ject now extant. He has arranged all the ancient ideas 
concerning rhetoric in so comprehensive a manner, as 
to render his writings an invaluable acquisition to every 
student of oratory. 

After the days of Cicero and Quintilian, the Romans 
experienced the most oppressive form of arbitrary and 
tyrannical government. Luxury and effeminacy were 

* Cicero's first oration at the bar, was the defence of Sextus Rosc-ius. 
Roscius had been prosecuted by Sylla, the dictator, and hence, the oldest 
and most distinguished advocates were afraid to appear in his behalf. 
Cicero, to his great honor, gained the cause; being then twenty-six 
years of age. 

Besides Cicero's two books of Invention, which Quintilian calls his 
books of Rhetoric, there are extant his three books of an Orator ; one of 
Famous Orators; and another, which is called the Orator ; as also his 
Topics, a preface concerning the best sort of Orators ; and a treatise of the 
parts of Oratory. The four books to Herenius, which are published 
among Cicero's works, appear, with good reason, to be attributed to 
Cornificius. 



228 INTRODUCTION. 

introduced; their taste became corrupt, and their 
genius discouraged; and that ornamental and diffu- 
sive eloquence which had existed in its most splendid 
and illustrious form, soon degenerated into quaintness 
and affectation, into tumid declamation and servile 
flattery. 



PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS. 



RHETORIC— ORATORY.— ELOQUENCE.— RHETORICIAN AND 
ORATOR. 

Rhetoric, according to Quintilian, is the science of 
speaking well. It attempts to produce conviction con- 
cerning some particular object, that it may influence 
the will to a corresponding determination. It seeks 
either to arouse the mind to action, or to dissuade it 
from acting upon the resolutions already taken, or such 
as are in contemplation. Its immediate employment is 
not to search after truth, but to render acknowledged 
and supposed truths influential. It leaves to logic the 
province of cool investigation, and of drawing legiti- 
mate conclusions from admitted premises, without any 
regard to motives. The rhetorician is solicitous to 
effect some particular purpose, and calls in the art of 
reason merely as an auxiliary. He attempts to influ- 
ence the will by reasoning with the affections ; knowing 
that if they be gained over, the will is ready to follow. 
He therefore artfully conceals, or slightly passes over 
every circumstance which is not favorable to his views, 
and brings forward, and largely expatiates upon those 
20 



230 PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS. 

which are. He suggests motives of pleasure, utility, 
safety, honor, and pity, as the subject admits. He not 
only presupposes the object in view to be of primary 
importance, but he employs every method to implant 
this conviction in the minds of those whom he endea- 
vors to persuade. These attempts become most suc- 
cessful by a close imitation of that train of ideas, and 
those modes of expression which any particular passion 
or affection is prone to suggest. If the design be to 
excite anger and resentment, rhetoric imitates the lan- 
guage of anger. It places the supposed offence in the 
strongest point of view, and describes it in the most 
vivid colors. It assiduously collects, and expatiates 
upon every circumstance which contributes to the ag- 
gravation of the crime. Should compassion be the 
object, it enlarges upon the wretched state of the suf- 
ferer; his fears, his apprehensions, and his penitence. 
It palliates his faults, extols his good qualities, and 
thus collects, in one point of view, all his claims on 
commiseration. The species of argument which per- 
sons under the influence of passion and strong affec- 
tions perpetually adopt, is rendered more efficacious by 
appropriate language. The rhetorician, therefore, stu- 
dies and imitates the particular language of each pas- 
sion, either in its energy, vivacity, or diffuseness. 
Hence, he liberally employs all those tropes and 
figures of speech which nature suggests and art has 
classified. 

Oratory may be defined oral eloquence; or the art of 
communicating, by the immediate action of the vocal and 
expressive organs, to popular assemblies, the dictates of 
our reason, or our will, and the workings of our passions, 



PKELIMINAKY EXPLANATIONS. 231 

our feelings, and our imaginations. Oratory includes 
the idea of eloquence: for no man can be an orator 
who does not possess an affluence of thought and lan- 
guage. But eloquence does not necessarily include the 
idea of oratory; since a man may be rich in all the 
stores of language and of thought -without possessing 
the advantages of a graceful and impressive delivery. 
Oratory is, therefore, the name of a more complex 
idea; and includes, besides the general notion of elo- 
quence, the practical part of elocution. Eloquence may 
be considered as the soul, or animating principle of dis- 
course; and is dependent on intellectual energy and 
intellectual attainments. Elocution is the embodying 
form, or representative power; dependent on exterior 
accomplishment and cultivation of the organs. Oratory 
is the complicated and vital existence resulting from the 
perfect harmony and combination of the two. 

Oratory adapts the manner of delivery to the nature 
of the subject; it takes the characteristic signs of each 
emotion for its model, as far as it can safely imitate 
without the imputation of mimicry. It enters into the 
attitudes, gestures, tones of voice, accents, emphasis, 
expressions of circumstance, influenced by the particu- 
lar emotion, in such a manner that not an idea is suf- 
fered to lose its proper effect; and thus it enjoys every 
advantage to be derived from the power of sympathy. 

Eloquence may be defined, the art of expressing our 
thoughts and feelings with precision, force, and ele- 
gance; and of heightening the impressions of reason 
by the colorings of imagination. It is applicable, there- 
fore, to the whole faculty of verbal discourse, either 
oral or written. It addresses itself by the pen, to the 



232 PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS. 

eye, as well as by the living organs to the ear. Thus 
we speak, with admitted accuracy, of an eloquent book, 
as freely as of an eloquent oration; of the eloquent 
Buffon, alluding to his celebrated work on Natural His- 
tory; and of the eloquent writings as well as the elo- 
quent speeches of Edmund Burke. The apostrophe to 
the Queen of France is as genuine a piece of eloquence 
as if it had been delivered in the House of Commons. 

Eloquence, according to its modern acceptation, ap- 
pears to be the medium between the impetuosity which 
oratory admits, and which was highly characteristic of 
ancient oratory, and the studied artifice of the pro- 
fessed rhetorician. The term is sometimes applied to 
composition, and sometimes to delivery. When applied 
to both, it comprehends a certain degree of eloquence, 
both of diction and manner. The want of that energy 
which approaches to violence is compensated by per- 
tinency of language, fluency of utterance, and guarded 
chastity of address. In a word, its excellency consists 
in a pleasing adaptation of language to the subject, 
and of manner to both. It refuses too close an imita- 
tion of the turbid emotions, but delights in beautiful 
and animated description. It appears best adapted to 
the pathetic; and the elegance and graces which it 
loves, harmonize most easily and successfully with the 
softest and finest feelings of our nature. 

The Rhetoricians ('p^t-o^j) among the Athenians 
were originally ten in number, elected by lots to plead 
public causes in the senate-house or assembly; and for 
every cause in which they were retained, they received 
a drachm out of the public exchequer. They were 
sometimes called Sv^yo^ot, and their fee to awr^o^xov. 



PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS. 233 

According to the Scholiast upon Aristophanes, no man 
was admitted to this office till he was forty years of 
age. Nor were they elected until their valor in war, 
piety to their parents, prudence in the management of 
affairs, and their frugality and temperance had been 
examined. The rule, however, with regard to age, was 
abrogated about the sixth year of the Peloponnesian 
war. In process of time these orators were elevated 
above the Archons, and armed with a virtual control 
over the legislative department of the state, as we learn 
from the eighth section of the second Olynthiac oration 
of Demosthenes. They were frequently promoted to 
some regular official rank, as presidents over the ex- 
chequer, and ambassadors to foreign powers. 

Orators (or XvvSixoi) were certain officers, ten in 
number, created after the expulsion of the thirty 
tyrants. From an oration of Lysias in behalf of 
Nicias, it appears that they were invested with power 
to take cognizance of all complaints relative to the 
confiscation of property. They had also to defend the 
ancient laws in the name of the people, by whom they 
were appointed; and to plead in support of any law 
which was to be abrogated or enacted. These men, 
though differing from the e g«7*og«$ and avvqyogot, were 
sometimes designated by the same names. And lest 
this office, which was created for the benefit of the com- 
monwealth, should be abused to the private advantage 
of particular men, a law was enacted (Demost. in Lep- 
tin.\ by which the people were prohibited from confer- 
ring it twice upon the same person. 

With regard to the words Rhetorician and Orator, it 
20* 



2-34 PRELIMINARY EXPLANATIONS. 

may be remarked, that the Greeks subsequently used 
the former to express both those who taught the art, 
and such as practised it, yet the Romans afterwards, 
when they adopted that word into their language, con- 
fined it to the teachers of the art, and called the rest 
orators. 



CONTENTS 

OF 

QUINTILIAN'S INSTITUTES OF THE ORATOR. 



CHAPTER I. 

Of the Education of the future Orator. page 

I. Nature is not so much wanting to children as care - - 237 
II. What kind of persons nurses, parents, tutors, and boys, with 

whom the future orator is to be educated, ought to be 238 

III. The Greek language to be first learned .... 242 

IV. Boys can learn before they are seven years of age - - ib. 
V. Of reading and writing -.-...- 246 

CHAPTER II. 

Is Public or Private Tuition to be preferred? 

I. He refutes what is commonly objected against public schools, 

and is of opinion, 1. That they are not prejudicial to 
morals -.-.----. 251 
2. That they are not hurtful to study - - - 253 

II. He demonstrates, by many arguments, the utility of schools 255 

CHAPTER III. 

I. By what signs the genius of children is discerned - - 259 

II. How the learner's disposition is to be treated and managed 260 

III. Of the amusements of children - - - - 261 

IV. That children should not be whipped .... 262 

CHAPTER IV. 

Of Grammar. 

I. Eulogium on grammar ....... 263 

II. Speech to be perfect, should be correct, clear, and elegant - 265 



236 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

III. It is founded on reason, antiquity, authority, and custom - 265 

IV. Of orthography 269 

CHAPTER V. 

What books are proper for children to read, and the method of 

teaching them to read 270 

CHAPTER VI. 
Of the first exercises in the grammar-school .... 278 

CHAPTER VH. 

Children should be instructed in several arts before they com- 
mence the study of oratory. Are these arts necessary 
to the future orator? 280 

CHAPTER VIII. 
Of music and its advantages 283 

CHAPTER IX. 
Of geometry 292 

CHAPTER X. 

I. Pronunciation is to be formed by that of comedians - - 297 
II. And gesture and attitude copied from the Palaestra - - 300 

CHAPTER XL 

Children are capable of being taught many things at the same 
time; 1. Because the nature of the mind is such that it 
can attend to many things together .... 303 

2. Because boys can easily bear the labor of study - - 304 

3. Because they have then most time for that purpose - 305 
That indolence is the cause why orators do not learn 

many things 306 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY, 



CHAPTER I. 

Of the Education of the Future Orator. 

I. Nature is not so much wanting to children as care. II. What kind 
of persons nurses, parents, tutors, and boys, with whom the future 
orator is to be educated, ought to be. III. The Greek language to be 
first learned. IV. Boys can learn before they are seven years of age. 
V. Of reading and writing. 

I. At the birth of a son, let a father conceive the 
best hopes respecting him; and, therefore, he will be 
more careful from the beginning.* For it is a false 
complaint, that few are endowed with the power of com- 
prehending those things in which they are instructed ; 
and that most children waste away their time and ap- 
plication through dullness of apprehension. On the 
contrary, you may find many of quick invention,^ and 
prompt to learn.J Such is the picture of man's nature. 
And as the destination of birds is for flying, of horses 

* A principiis, from the first elements. 

t Faciles in excogitando, easy in collecting or devising thought. 

J Ad discendum promptos, ready to learn. 



238 THE ART OF RHETORIC : OR, 

for the swiftness of course, of wild beasts for a ferocious 
propensity, so, from the agency and acute reflections of 
the mind, being properly adapted to rational beings, we 
infer that the origin of the soul is celestial. But the 
dull,* and they who cannot learn, f are no more pro- 
duced according to the order of human nature, than 
preternatural bodies. Very few examples, however, of 
this sort occur. And from the sprightliness we perceive 
in their tender years, which is suffered to decay, it is 
manifest, that care is more wanting to children than 
nature. I admit that the intellectual powers of one are 
superior to those of another ;{ but culture effects more 
or less ; and no one can be found, but has acquired some- 
thing by study. Let, therefore, the parent, who is per- 
suaded of this, use all his diligence to forward the hopes 
of a future orator. 

II. The selection of nurses, § characterized by purity 
and propriety of language, should be a primary con- 
sideration. These Chrysippus|| desired, if practicable, 

* Hebetes, dull, in the Latin text, is opposed to faciles in excogitando, and 

t Indociles, who cannot learn, to ad discendum promptos. 

J PrcBstat tamen ingenio alius alium, concedo, I admit that the genius of 
one excels that of another. 

§ Quintilian, (or Tacitus,) in the dialogue de Oratoribus, says : " A 
nurse or matron was selected whose life and manners rendered her 
worthy of that office ; and to whom the children were committed. She 
not only superintended their instruction, but, with an equal modesty and 
gravity, regulated their very amusements and recreations. Thus Cor- 
nelia, Amelia, and Attica, mothers to the Gracchi, Julius Caesar, and 
Augustus are reported to have employed themselves in the education 
of noblemen's children." 

|| Chrysippus, a celebrated Stoic philosopher and scholar of Zeno. He 
was a native of Tarsus, a city of Cilicia, and is reported to have written 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 239 

to be learned, or at least, as far as circumstances would 
permit, of an irreproachable character. Their morals 
are first to be examined ; and next, the proper pronun- 
ciation of their words; for these are the first the child 
hears, and it is their words his imitation will strive to 
form. We are naturally most tenacious of those things 
which we have acquired in our tender years: new ves- 
sels retain the odor of their first ingredients; and the 
dye by which wool loses its primitive whiteness, can 
never be defaced.* The more vicious the propensities 
are, the more stubbornly do they adhere. Good is 
easily changed into bad, but how can you convert vice 
into goodness ? Let not, therefore, the child, even 
while an infant, accustom himself to a manner of 
speech which he must subsequently unlearn. 

Parental erudition will also facilitate the progress of 
the future orator. Nor do I speak of fathers only; 
for we know that Cornelia,f the mother of the Gracchi, 
from the profound learning contained in her letters, 
contributed greatly to their eloquence. The daughter 

more than seven hundred volumes. He died in the 143d Olympiad, 
and had a monument erected to his memory among those of the illus- 
trious Athenians. See Horace, lib. i. Sat. 3, v. 127; nee non lib. ii. Sat. 3, 
v. 44 ; Laert., lib. vii. ; Cic. Acad. Qucest., lib. iv. 

* Elui, be washed out. 

f This was the noble Roman matron who was once visited by a lady, 
who, having displayed her own jewels, requested to see Cornelia's. 
The request was evaded until the return of her children, when, pre- 
senting them, she feelingly exclaimed, " These are my jewels!" 

Cicero says that the Gracchi were educated non tarn in gremio quam 
in sermone matris. 

See also Cicero, in Brutwm, concerning Cornelia, and the daughter of 
Laelius, 211. 



240 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

of Laelius is also reported, in her usual conversation, 
to have copied the elegance of her father's style; and 
the speech of the daughter of Quintus Hortensius,* 
before the Triumviri, f was not only honorable to her 
own sex, but creditable even to ours. Those, however, 
who are unlearned, ought not, on this account, to mani- 
fest less care for their children's instruction; but, on 
the contrary, should exhibit greater diligence with re- 
gard to every particular part. 

The same observations concerning nurses are equally 
applicable to those boys in whose company the future 
orator shall be educated. 

The chief care must be in the selection either of 
skilful tutors,% or of such as are conscious that their 
abilities are inconsiderable. For nothing is more de- 
spicable than the infatuation of those who, having ad- 
vanced a little beyond the first elements, consider 
themselves learned. They think it derogatory to yield 
to the experienced, and, inflated with an idea of autho- 
rity, the common failing of their kind, they become 
violent and imperious, and, under this influence, utter 

* "When a heavy tax was imposed on the Order of Matrons by the 
Roman senate, and no one could be found who would advocate their 
cause, Hortensia appeared before the Triumviri, and pleaded with so 
much eloquence in behalf of her sex, that a large part of the tribute 
was remitted."' — Valerias Maximus, lib. viii. cap. 3. 

f Caesar Octavius, Mark Antony, and Lepidus. 

J De pcedagogis. Among the Romans, such as were free of the city 
were distinguished into Ingenui, Libertini, and Liberti. The Ingenui 
were such as bad been born free, and of parents that had been always 
free. The Libertini were the children of such as had been made free. 
And the Liberti such as had been actually made free themselves. Now 
pedagogues were generally selected from the Liberti: and their duty 
was originally, as the word imports, (ex waif, puer, et iLyu, duco,) to 



ELEMENTS OF OKATOEY. 241 

tlieir habitual folly. Their exceptionable course is no 
less prejudicial to morals; for, according to the testi- 
mony of the Babylonian Diogenes,* Leonidas, the tutor 
of Alexander, imbued his mind in childhood with cer- 
tain vices, from which that great and powerful king 
could not entirely extricate himself in more advanced 
years. 

If I appear to any one to require too much, let him 
consider how arduous a matter it is to form an orator ; 
for even if none of those things to which I have al- 
luded were wanting to his formation, still more difficult 
things remain. Constant study, the most experienced 
masters, and frequent instructions, are indispensably 
necessary. Let him, therefore, be instructed in the 
best things, and if any one shall consider this an em- 
barrassment, the fault must not be attributed to the 
method, but to the instructor. 

Now should the children and nurses happen not to 
be such as I would desire, at least let a teacher, well 
versed in language, be in constant attendance, and in- 
stantly correct those words which may be improperly 
pronounced by them, in his pupil's presence, in order 
that he may not be suffered to contract such a habit. 
But that which I previously stated must be understood 
to be good, and this a remedy. 

accompany the children of the Ingenui to school and to their exercises; 
to superintend their behavior, and protect them from injury. And 
hence Plautus : " Servum una mittit, qui olim a puero parvulo mihi 
pcedagogus fuerat." 

* The Babylonian Diogenes here mentioned was a Stoic philosopher, 
and associated with Carneades, and Critolaus in their famous embassy 
to Rome. He succeeded Zeno in his school. 

21 



242 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

III. I would advise the pupil to begin with the study 
of Greek: because he will necessarily acquire the La- 
tin, which is in common use: and as our accidence has 
been derived from the Greeks, he should be first in- 
structed in theirs. This, however, ought not to be so 
strictly observed as that (according to the custom of 
many) he should speak or learn nothing for a consider- 
able time except Greek: for, by foreign sounds, impro- 
per accents and a corrupt manner of speech will ensue ; 
and a long practice of a Greek idiom* cannot be laid 
aside, even in speaking a different language. The 
Latin, therefore, must soon follow, and both in a short 
time proceed together: so that when we equally im- 
prove in both languages, the one will not be hurtful to 
the other. ,f 

IV. Some writers were of opinion that children 
under seven years of age should not be induced to 
learn; because that age can neither conceive the mean- 
ing of methods, nor endure the labor of study. Many 
authors report, who lived before the time of Aristo 
phanes,J the grammarian, that Hesiod§ was of this 
opinion. For he was the first who denied that the 

* By a Greek figure, in the Latin text, (Grcecae figurce.) is understood a 
manner and form of speaking peculiar to the Greeks, and not adapted 
to the Latin idiom. 

•j" Neutra alteri offitiat. 

X A grammarian of Byzantium, and scholar of Callimachus. He is 
described by Suidas. 

§ Hesiod was a native of Ascra in Baeotia, and hence he is called by 
the poets Ascrceus, and JLscrcms senex. Two only of his poems, which 
are reputed genuine, have reached our times ; the one entitled Works 
and Days, and the other The Thcogony, or Birth of the Gods. 



ELEMENTS OP ORATORY. 243 

vitodqxas* in which book this precept was found, was 
the production of this poet. Eratosthenes, f among 
others, inculcated a similar maxim. But I concur with 
Chrysippus and those who desire that no time ought to be 
exempted from its fostering care: for, although he has 
assigned three years to nurses, yet he decides that even 
the infantile mind may be moulded by their excellent in- 
structions. And why may not years, in which manners 
are formed, be improved also by learning ? Nor am I 
ignorant that one year afterwards may contribute as 
much as all the time of which I speak will scarcely be 
able to effect: nevertheless, those who agree with me, 
seem, in this respect, not so much to have spared the 
learner as the teacher. What better can they do, as 
soon as they are able to speak ? For they must neces- 
sarily do something, and why should we despise this 
gain, however little, until seven years are expired ? 
For, although the advantage of the first years may be 
inconsiderable, a boy will, nevertheless, learn greater 
matters that very year in which he has learned less. 
These yearly advances will at length amount to some- 
thing considerable; and the time improved in infancy 
will be an acquisition to youth. The same precepts 
may be applicable to the following years, in order that 
whatever should be learned may not be learned too 
late. Let us, therefore, not lose this first time ; and 

* *Y7ro9f»ta<;, Precepts. 

"J" Eratosthenes, a native of Cyrene. He was a philosopher, poet, his- 
torian, and astronomer, and scholar of Aristo and Callimachus, the poet. 
He was predecessor to Apollonius in Ptolemy's library at Alexandria. 
Longinus on the Sublime, section xxxiii., says: "Is Eratosthenes, whose 
little poem of Erigone is faultless throughout, to be deemed superior to 
Archilochus V — See Stobaus, serm. 44. 



244 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

more especially because the elements of learning de- 
pend chiefly upon memory, which in children is very 
retentive. 

Nor am I so inexperienced with regard to the man- 
agement of tender years, as to think that a rigid dis- 
cipline ought to be exercised over children, and that a 
prescribed task should be exacted. For great care 
must be taken that the child, who is not yet able to 
love study, should not hate it; and that the aversion 
which he had once entertained may not deter him in 
more advanced years. To him study ought to be made 
an amusement: let the master ask him questions, and 
praise him ; and let him be induced to take pleasure in 
his own little acquirements. Should he sometimes re- 
fuse to learn, teach another before him, whom he may 
rival. Let them contend, in the meantime, with each 
other, and let him fancy that he has frequently the 
advantage on his side. Let him also be allured by 
rewards, which are a very prevailing argument with 
children. 

Instructions on subjects so inconsiderable may ap- 
pear to depreciate our grand design of forming the 
orator; but all studies have their infancy; and as the 
bringing up of the strongest bodies takes a beginning 
from milk and a cradle, so he who may hereafter be 
most distinguished for eloquence experienced a period 
of imbecility. His first articulations were a jargon of 
half-formed words, and the figures of the alphabet 
struck him with amazement. And because the learn- 
ing of a trivial matter is perhaps of no great conse- 
quence, shall it therefore be said that it is not necessary? 
And if no one censures a father for not neglecting the 



, ELEMENTS OP ORATORY. 245 

least trifles with regard to his son's education, shall it 
be considered exceptionable if any one should publish 
the good regulations of his family to benefit others by 
his example ? Add, moreover, that these little mat- 
ters are better adapted to children's capacities, and as 
bodies cannot be formed to certain flexures of the 
joints except when young, so the mind, unless made 
pliable in tender years, becomes so callous with age 
as to be subsequently unfit for many things. Would 
Philip, king of the Macedons, have his son Alexander* 
instructed in the first elements of learning by Aris- 
totle, f the greatest philosopher of the age ? Or would 
he (Aristotle) have undertaken that office had he not 
considered it a matter of the greatest importance to 
have the first principles of studies conducted by the 
most accomplished instructor?" Let us therefore sup- 
pose that Alexander, a child deserving so much care, 
(although every one's child is equally dear to him,) is 
placed under my superintendence, should I be ashamed, 
even in the first rudiments, to point out some short 
methods of teaching ? 

I do not approve that course which is generally 

* "Alexander was placed under the tuition of Aristotle at the age of 
th ir teen ."-^- Gillies. 

■j" "Aristotle, a native of Stagira, earae to Athens- in his eighteenth 
year, 367 A. C. There he continued twenty years as the scholar of 
Plato, who died 348 A. C. Aristotle left Athens upon the death of his 
master, and spent three years at Atamaeus, and two at Mitylene. From 
thence he went to Macedon, in the forty-third year of his age, and 343 
A. C. He was employed eight years in the education of Alexander. He 
returned to Athens 335 A. C; taught twelve years in the Lyceum, and 
died the next year at Chalcis, at the age of sixty-three, A. C. 323, and 
a year after the death of Alexander." — Dionys. of Hal. ad AmmcEiim. 

21* 



246 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

adopted by masters, of teaching children the names 
and order of letters before they are acquainted "with 
their forms. For, by running over them by heart, 
and not applying the mind to their figures, their recog- 
nition is retarded. Teachers, on this account, when 
they have arranged the letters long enough, in their 
proper order in which they are usually first written, 
should have them all passed over backwards, and vari- 
ously changed and shifted, until those who are in- 
structed shall know them at first sight, and not by 
their order. In this manner they will be most accu- 
rately learned, and as exactly distinguished as different 
men by their different dress and names. But this pre- 
caution with regard to letters is not applicable to sylla- 
bles. I exclude not also the custom of exciting children 
to learn by giving them ivory figures of letters for play ; 
or any other invention more fascinating to that age, 
which may be amusing to handle, behold, or name. 

When the alphabet shall have been learned in differ- 
ent positions,* it will be highly advantageous to have 
the letters accurately engraved on a plate, that the 
stylusf may be drawn through the furrows made in 
them. By this means no mistake will take place as in 
waxen tablets, (both sides having margins and deter- 

* " Those who taught children to read and write were called Litera- 
tores, or T^a.y.[xa.ris-a\ : to these they were committed about the age of 
six or seven years." — Dacier in Horat., lib. i. sat. i. 

"f" Stylus, a kind of pen, of wood or ivory, used by the ancients for 
writing most commonly on waxen tablets. With one end they wrote, 
and expunged with the other. It appears from this passage, that it was 
customary with the ancients to teach their children first to know the 
letters accurately, and immediately afterwards to write them. The same 
may be said of syllables and words. 






ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 247 

minate bounds which cannot be passed ;) and the child, 
by quickly and frequently following the impressed 
track, will strengthen the joints of his fingers, and not 
require the aid of a hand placed over his to direct 
him. The care of writing well and swiftly is no in- 
considerable matter, though commonly neglected by 
the higher ranks. It is a great acquisition to study, 
and a good method will facilitate and accelerate its 
progress; whereas, to write slowly, is a hindrance and 
delay to thought. Misshaped and confused writing can 
neither be well read nor understood; and hence follows 
the additional labor of dictating the necessary correc- 
tions. He, therefore, who contracts the habit of a fair 
and well-proportioned hand, will, in many respects, ex- 
perience its beneficial results; but more especially in 
transacting private business, and conducting his corre- 
spondence with his friends and acquaintances. 

There is no compendious method for teaching sylla- 
bles: they must all be learned perfectly;* and the 
most difficult, as is commonly done, should not be re- 
served for another time, that they may be known when 
children come to write words. They ought not to be 
committed to memory indiscriminately; frequent repe- 
tition will fix them in the mind to greater advantage; 
and the reading of them should not be rapid, unless 
when a plain and easy connection of the letters with 
each other shows that this can be effected without a 
delay of thought. Let the formation of words from 
syllables, and sentences from words, follow next. It is 
incredible how much haste retards reading: for those 
who attempt more than they are able, fall into doubts, 

* Syllabis nullum compendium est: perdiscendce omncs. 



248 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

stammerings, and repetitions; and when they mistake, 
they are diffident even of those things which they 
know. Let, therefore, the first reading be distinct; 
the next connected, and slow for some time, until prac- 
tice facilitates an exact readiness. For, to look to the 
right side is not only a method generally prescribed, 
but also used; and he who keeps in view what follows, 
must read, at the same time, what goes before; and 
what is most difficult, must divide the attention of the 
mind between his voice and eyes.* 

Another thing requiring our care is this: when a boy 
begins, as is customary, to write words, he should not 
lose his labor in copying a vulgar and frivolous vocabu- 
lary. Because he may then learn, while otherwise em- 
ployed, the interpretation of abstruse words, which the 
Greeks call yx«tfcras,t and with his first rudiments attain 
the knowledge of a thing which should afterwards re- 
quire its own time. 

And since we are still engaged in the discussion of 
inconsiderable matters, I would recommend copy-lines 
to consist not of idle sentences, but to inculcate some 
virtuous precept. The recollection will continue to old 
age, and the impression on a tender mind may prove 
conducive to moral life. The sayings, also, of illustri- 
ous men, and select passages from poets, (things very 
agreeable to children,) may be learned for amusement. J 

* Intentio animi dividendcu, ut aliud voce, aliud oculis agatur. 

7 Quintilian himself in the fifth chapter of this book, calls Glossemata 
words not in common use. 

J Cicero tells Atticus, in his second book de Legibus, " that when they 
were boys they used to learn the famous laws of the Twelve Tables by 
heart, in the same manner as they did an excellent poem." 



ELEMENTS OP ORATORY. 249 

Memory, of which I shall speak in its proper place, 
is extremely necessary to an orator: it is chiefly 
strengthened and nourished by exercise; and in those 
years of which we now speak, which can produce 
nothing of themselves, it is almost the only thing 
which can be assisted by the care of teachers.* 

But, in order that children may have their organs of 
speech adapted for a just pronunciation, it will not be 
improper to make them repeat, with the greatest cele- 
rity, certain words and verses of an affected difficulty, 
chained together by a jumble and jingle of many harsh, 
hoarse, and jarring syllables, f They are called za-ki7toi% 
in Greek. This may be called a matter of little signi- 
ficance, yet, through its omission, many faults in pro- 
nunciation, unless prevented in early life, will ever after 
remain incorrigible. % 

* Doceniium. 

"t As perterricrepus, Aristophanes uses the words e-<payi$Qvvx. a S'yi i '- fA , iT a f 
and no{j(,7ro<pa.He\og%nfjt.Qvct. 
So also the old verse : 

Fraxinu fixa ferox infest a infunditur ossis.—Cam, 

£ Xa\$7rol, difficult. 

§ Incmendabili in posterum pravitate durmtwr, 



250 THE ART OF RHETORIC J OR, 



CHAPTER II. 

Is Public or Private Tuition for Children to be 
preferred ? 

I. He refutes what is commonly objected against public schools, and is 
of opinion, 1. That they are not prejudicial to morals: — and here 
passes a severe censure on the pernicious indulgence of parents 
2. That they are not hurtful to study. II. He demonstrates, by many 
arguments, the utility of schools. 

As the boy grows up he must be insensibly allured 
from all infantile indulgence, and begin to learn in 
earnest. Here, therefore, is the place for discussing 
a question: — Is a public or private education to be pre- 
ferred f and ivhich has the greater advantages ? 

I. To the public, the greatest legislators and most 
eminent authors have given the preference. It must 
not, however, be concealed, that there are some, who, 
for certain particular motives, dissent from this almost 
universally received custom. These produce two prin- 
cipal reasons in support of their opinion. The first is, 
because they exhibit a greater care for morals by avoid- 
ing an association with those of the same age who may 
be ardently addicted to vice; and whose corrupt ex- 
amples are the causes of all the irregularity we perceive 
in the conduct of others. I wish this complaint was 
! The second, that a master can bestow more 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 251 

time upon one than when divided among many. The 
first reason is entitled to great consideration; for if 
schools are profitable for learning, but prejudicial to 
morals, I should rather recommend the instruction of a 
child in upright life than in speaking eloquently. But 
these two particulars are intimately connected together: 
for I assert, that no one can be an orator except the 
good man;* and even if he could, it should not be with 
my permission. Let us, therefore, first examine this 
point. 

1. These writers consider schools to be a nursery of 
vice: they are so sometimes, and a parent's house is 
equally the same: there are many examples of inno- 
cence lost and preserved in both places. Nature and 
education are the only particulars that constitute a dif- 
ference between persons. Should a boy be inclined to 
vicious courses; should his tutors be negligent in form- 
ing his tender heart by virtuous sentiments, and watch- 
ing carefully over all his actions, the most recluse life 
would not secure him from vice. His private tutor 
may be a man of depraved morals, and the conversa- 
tion of wicked domestics may be as contagious as that 
of immodest companions. f But if his natural dispo- 
sition is good, if his parents are not lulled into a blind 
indolence, they may select for him a preceptor of un- 

* " This was a favorite position among the ancient rhetoricians : — 
' Non posse oratorem esse nisi virum bonum.' To find any such con- 
nection between virtue and one of the highest liberal arts, must give 
pleasure ; and it can, I think, be clearly shown, that this is not a mere 
topic of declamation, but that the connection here alleged is undoubtedly 
founded in truth and reason." — Blair, lect. xxxiv. 

■f - Ingenuos. 



252 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

blemished integrity ,* (which ought to be the principal 
care of prudent persons,) they may inure him to the 
strictest discipline; and they may likewise set over him 
some grave governor of mild persuasion, or some faith- 
ful freedman,\ who shall constantly wait upon him, 
and whose presence will inspire with respect, and even 
improve in goodness, those whose company may have 
been suspected. 

It would be easy, in this respect, to remedy our ap- 
prehensions. I wish we were not ourselves the cor- 
ruptors of our children's morals. We first spoil their 
infant years with delicacies; and that soft education, 
which we call indulgence, enervates all the vigor of 
mind and body. What will not a grown-up child de- 
sire who walks softly in purple ? He can scarcely 
articulate a few words, and yet exhibits a taste for 
dress,% and all the refinements of the pleasures of the 
table.% The gratifications of their palates are more 
consulted than their morals. They grow up accus- 
tomed to the ease of litters and sedans; and when 
they alight they are upheld on both sides by the arms 
of officious attendants. We express pleasure at their 
enunciation of language of too licentious a character; 
and words which should not be permitted even at the 

* Et prceceptorem eligere sanctissimum quemque. It was customary with 
the Romans, particularly among those of distinguished rank, after their 
children were admitted to the grammar schools, and "after reason had 
displayed her faculties and established her command, to keep with 
them in the house some eminent preceptor or professor, to cultivate and 
adorn the advantages of nature." — Ken. Rom. Antiq. 

I Fidelem libertum. 

% Coccus, cochineal, is that granular insect with which scarlet is dyed. 

§ Conchylium poscit. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 253 

Alexandrian festivals,* we receive with laughter and 
hisses. No wonder: we have taught, and they have 
heard from us. ******** T;he m i seraD i e children 
learn vice before they know it to be such; and thus 
dissolute and depraved, they rather introduce the in- 
fection into schools than receive it from them. 

2. But, according to the second reason, a tutor who 
has only one pupil will bestow more time on his instruc- 
tion. There is nothing, however, to prevent him who 
is educated in schools from having one. But if this 
could not be accomplished, I should prefer the broad 
day of a virtuous assembly to the obscurity and soli- 
tude of private families. For every distinguished mas- 
terf desires to see himself surrounded by a large number 
of pupils, and thinks himself worthy of a more spacious 
theatre for the exertion of his abilities : whereas, those 
of an inferior character, from a consciousness of their 
insufficiency, attach themselves to one, and consider it 
not derogatory to assume the function of pedagogues. 
But should a person by interest, friendship, or money, 
employ at his house a master of the highest qualifica- 
tions, can he spend the whole day upon one ? Or can 
the application of his pupil be so unremitting as not to 
admit of fatigue, as it happens to the eyes long intent 
upon viewing an object ? Add, moreover, that study 

* Quintilian here alludes to the infamous sacrifices of Serapis, which 
were solemnized near Alexandria. 

Serapis first taught the Egyptians to sow corn and plant vines : after 
his death they worshiped him in the form of an ox, a symbol of 
husbandry. 

t Praceptor. The duties of Preceptors are thus defined by Dr. Pat- 
trick: — " Prceceptoribus artes et scientias docentibusy "The Preceptors 
teaching the arts and sciences." 

22 



254 

requires solitude; for the master does not assist a child 
while he learns his lesson, writes, and meditates; the 
least interruption serving only to embarrass him. Nor 
does he, in every lesson, require the aid of reading and 
expounding : for when would the knowledge of so many 
authors be acquired ? A short time is only required in 
order to prescribe his task for the whole day; and, 
therefore, the instructions which are imparted to one 
may be imparted to many; the nature of most things 
being such as to admit a communication to all by the 
same voice. I say nothing of rhetorical themes and 
declamations,* the whole of which, let the number be 
ever so great, each may take away with him. For the 
voice of a master, and a feast, are not similar cases. 
The feast diminishes in proportion to the greater num- 
ber of guests; but the master's voice is like the sun, 
distributing equally its light and heat to all. Should 
a grammarian make dissertations on the nature of a 
language, should he solve the intricacies of a question, 
or clear up passages in poets or historians, will not as 
many learn as hear him ? 

But one master, it is said, cannot thoroughly examine 
a number of scholars, nor correct their compositions. 
I admit the difficulty, (for what subject is without diffi- 
culties ?) but we shall soon compare this with its ad- 
vantages. 

I should not, however, advise a child to be sent to a 

* Taceo de partitionibus et dedamationibus rhetorum. The Partitio com- 
prised the principal heads, or parts of a theme, composed and dictated 
by the master, as a subject for declamation, divided into its parts. De- 
clamatio was the subject-matter, which the master having diligently 
prepared at home, either pronounced or dictated in school. 

For Themes, see " Elements of Oratory," page 93. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 255 

school where he would be neglected. Nor ought a 
good master to burden himself with a greater number of 
pupils than he is able to teach: particular care ought 
also to be taken that this master may be a bosom 
friend,* and that his instruction proceed rather from 
the secret emotions of his affection than a sense of 
duty. By this means our children will never be con- 
founded in an undistinguished crowd; and there is no 
master, however slightly imbued with learning, who 
will not, for his own credit, peculiarly cherish him in 
whom he perceives both application and genius. But 
if crowded schools should be avoided, (to which thing 
I do not assent, when the reputation of the master is 
the cause of the resort,) it does not follow that all 
schools must be avoided: for there. is a wide difference 
between avoiding entirely and making a judicious 
selection. 

II. Having refuted what is commonly objected 
against public schools, I shall now proceed to explain 
my own sentiments upon the subject. Above all, let 
the future orator, who must appear in the most solemn 
assemblies, and have the eyes of a whole republic 
fixed upon him, early accustom himself not to be 
abashed at facing a numerous audience; the reverse of 

* Among the ancient Romans an extraordinary attachment existed 
between master and pupil. This feeling is beautifully portrayed by 
Persius, in his first Satire, to his instructor, Cornutus, the Stoic. 

Juvenal also breaks out into that elegant rapture, Satire VII. : 

Eternal springs and rising flowers adorn 
The relics of each venerable urn : 
Who pious reverence to their tutors paid, 
As parents honored, and as gods obeyed. 



256 

which is a natural consequence of a recluse and seden- 
tary life. His mind must he excited and kept in a 
state of constant elevation; otherwise, his mind will 
languish in solitude, and contract a certain rust,* as it 
were, in the shade: or, on the contrary, hecome puffed 
up with vanity; for he who compares himself to no one, 
must necessarily attribute too much to himself. And 
when he is afterwards obliged to make an exhibition of 
his acquirements, he is blind in daylight; everything is 
new to him; because he has learned in private what 
was to be transacted before the eyes of the world. 

I make no mention of the firm and sincere friend- 
ships contracted at schools, and religiously preserved 
even to old age. Nothing is held so sacred; and to be 
fellow-students, is as much as to be initiated in the 
same mysteries. Where shall he learn what we call 
"common sense/'f when he sequesters himself from 
the society which is natural not only to men, but to 
the inferior animals. Add to this, that at home he 
can only learn those things in which he is instructed : 
but in schools he can learn what is imparted to others. 
He will daily hear his master approve one thing, cor- 
rect another; reprimand the idleness of one, commend 
the diligence of another; the love of praise will excite 
his emulation; to yield to his equals will be a dis- 
honor; to surpass his superiors, a glory. All these 
are incentives to young minds, and although ambition 
be a vice, it is often the cause of virtue. 

* Ducit situm. 

"j" Quintilian understands by " sensus communis" a kind of knowledge 
and experience we insensibly acquire by our intercourse with men. 
Cicero calls it common prudence. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATOEY. 257 

I recollect an excellent custom observed by my ma$* 
ters.* They distributed the scholars into classes, and 
every one declaimed in his place, which was more ad- 
vanced, according as he had excelled others, and made 
a greater progress. As judgment was to be passed on 
the performances, the contention was great for the re- 
spective degree of excellence ; but to be the first of the 
class was esteemed by far the most honorable. Nor 
was this decision to continue always; for every thir- 
tieth day renewed the contest, and gave the vanquished 
an opportunity to enter the lists again. He who had 
the superiority did not remit his care; and he who had 
been vanquished was full of hopes to wipe away dis- 
grace. I am persuaded, that this furnished us with a 
more ardent desire, and a greater passion for learning, 
than all the advice of masters, care of tutor s^ and 
wishes of parents. 

But as nothing is so conducive for making a pro- 
gress in learning as emulation, so beginners and chil- 
dren ought rather to rival their school-fellows than 
masters, their imitation, as easier, being more agree- 
able to them. For it is impossible that a child, who is 
in his first elements, should expect, all at once, to 
aspire to the eloquence of a man whom he reputes to 
have talents far superior to himself. He will, there- 
fore, proportion himself to what is within his reach: 
as vines, planted close to trees, first catch and twine 
around the lower branches, and at last shoot up to the 
top. This truth may also be applicable to such masters 
as are more influenced by a desire of proving useful, 

* A praceptoribus meis. 
f Pcedagogorum custodinm. 

22* 



258 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

than making a show of their talents; for in teaching 
children they ought not to overburden their weakness ; 
but by intentionally lessening their own knowledge, 
adapt it to their intellects. Pour water quickly into a 
vessel of a narrow neck, little enters; pour it gradu- 
ally, and by small quantities, it is filled ; so we must 
see, with regard to children, how much they are able 
to receive. For things too elevated cannot have ad- 
mission into minds not yet sufficiently open to receive 
them. It is therefore necessary that they should have 
objects of imitation until they are in a condition to 
excel, and thus we may hope that they will insensibly 
make a greater progress. To what has been said on 
this head I shall add this reflection. 

A master who has only one pupil to instruct, can 
never infuse into his words that energy, spirit, and fire 
which he would if animated by a number of students. 
The force of eloquence has its seat in the soul: the 
soul must, then, be affected in a very lively manner ; 
she must figure to herself the images of things; and 
she must transform herself, as it were, into the very 
nature of the subjects of which we speak. Now, the 
more noble and exalted the soul is, the more magnifi- 
cent the object ought to be which should move her; 
her efforts give her a new supply of strength, and she 
seems to exult in great attempts. There is a secret 
disdain felt in lavishing upon one the powers of elo- 
quence, acquired by so much labor: there is a shame 
attached to the elevation of a discourse above what is 
ordinary. And, indeed, let us conceive a man in the 
act of making a speech; his air, his voice, his gait, his 
pronunciation, his action, his transports, his fatigue, 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 259 

and all for the instruction of a single person: would 
not his behavior seem in a great degree allied to mad- 
ness ? Undoubtedly, eloquence would never have ex- 
isted if men had confined themselves to speak for one. 



CHAPTER III. 



I. By what signs the genius of children is discerned. II. How the 
learner's disposition is to be treated and managed. III. Of the 
amusements of children. IV. That children should not be whipped. 

I. A skillful master,* who has a child placed under 
his care, must begin by investigating the character of 
his genius and natural disposition. Memory is the 
principal sign of a genius in children. Its qualities 
are twofold; an easy conception and faithful reten- 
tion.^ Next comes imitation, which indicates, in like 
manner, a docile nature, and ought to be so directed as 
not to affect the air, the garb, the gait, and the ex- 
ceptionable ways of others; but rather to express and 
represent exactly those things which it learns. I can, 
indeed, entertain but faint hopes of the powers of that 
child's mind, who, for the desire of imitation, should 
strive to render himself ridiculous. For the truly 
ingenious can be no other than the virtuous ; and the 

* Peritus docendi. 

"t" Facile percipere, el fiddlier continere. 



260 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

slow genius is, in my opinion, a degree above the 
vicious. But the virtuous will stand at a very great 
distance from the dull and groveling. The child of 
whom I form to myself an idea, will easily learn all 
that is imparted to him: sometimes he may ask little 
questions, but will rather follow than run before. That 
sort of talent which seems precocious seldom arrives 
at perfection. Those who possess it are prompt at 
executing little things; and, with an air of decision, 
show all their knowledge at once. This is perceptible 
when they are learning to read; for, without hesita- 
tion, and not deterred by the shame of their mistakes, 
they join words together and confound the sense. 
Their promptness, however, is not of much conse- 
quence; because they have no real strength to invigo- 
rate them, nor sufficiently deep roots to be a support 
and nurture to their growth. Such is the sudden 
sprouting of seeds cast upon the surface of the ground; 
or blades of corn which grow yellow before the harvest 
with only empty ears. These superficial acquirements, 
compared with children's years, may be applauded; 
but our admiration diminishes at beholding this pro- 
ficiency suddenly at a stand. 

II. When the master shall have made these observa- 
tions upon a child, the next thing which falls under 
consideration is the management of his disposition. 
Some are indolent unless urged on, others refuse sub- 
jection; some are restrained by fear, others are dis- 
couraged: assiduity improves some, others learn by 
"fits and starts."* But let the boy be entrusted to my 

* In aliis plus impetus facit. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 261 

care whom praise excites, who is delighted with glor y, and 
who weeps when vanquished. He will be influenced by 
these noble sentiments: a reproach will sting him to 
the quick; a sense of honor will arouse him: in him 
sloth need never be dreaded. 

III. Children, however, must be allowed some relax- 
ation, not only because there is nothing capable of 
enduring continued labor, which is verified even in 
bodies without sense and life, which cannot preserve 
their force unless recruited by alternate rest; but also, 
because the desire of learning is placed in the will, 
which cannot bear constraint. When, therefore, they 
have refreshed themselves by recreation, they return 
with new vigor to their studies, and their minds, which, 
under other circumstances, would spurn the yoke of 
compulsion, become more tractable, and have clearer 
conceptions. I am not displeased at play in children: 
it is a sign of their vivacity; but the boy whom I ob- 
serve to be always gloomy and downcast, affords no 
great expectations of a sprightly disposition for study, 
because he is insensible to that ardor for play which is 
so natural to those of his age. There must, however, 
be proper bounds to their sports : deny them play they 
hate study; allow them too much, they acquire a habit 
of idleness. There are some useful amusements for 
sharpening the mental powers of children; such as 
proposing little questions, which they eagerly endeavor 
to solve. Play also discovers more easily their moral 
character; and hence it may appear that there is no 
age, though ever so infirm, but is capable of receiving 
the impression of good and evil; and that more espe- 



262 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

cially, at that period, attention should be directed to 
its culture, while unacquainted with the arts of dis- 
simulation, and pliable in the hands of a teacher. It 
is easier to break than to amend what is hardened in 
depravity. A child, therefore, cannot be too soon ad- 
monished to restrain his passions, to abandon his per- 
nicious practices, and to unlearn his capricious humor 
of acting inconsiderately; and they who have the care 
of him should always keep in mind this sentence of 
Virgil:* 

— Adeo teneris consuescere multum est. 

Such is the force of custom in tender years. 

IV. Whipping children is a thing I greatly dislike, 
though authorized by custom and approved by Chry- 
sippus. First, because this mode of punishment ap-. 
pears to be mean, servile, and, as all will admit, a fla- 
grant insult on more advanced years. Secondly, should 
a child be of so abject a disposition as not to correct 
himself when reprimanded, he will be as hardened 
against stripes as the vilest slave. And lastly, should 
a master exact from his pupil an account of his study, 
there would be no necessity to have recourse to this 
extremity. It is his neglect which most commonly 
causes the scholar's punishment, who is not obliged to 
comply with his duty, and for not having done so, must 
be chastised. Now should there be no other way of 
correcting a child except whipping, what shall be done 
when, a grown up youth, he is under no apprehension 
of such punishment, and must learn greater and more 

* Georg., ii. v. 272. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 263 

difficult things? *****! shall enlarge no farther 
upon this subject: it is too much that I am understood. 
Let this, however, be sufficient to announce, that no one 
should be permitted to lean too heavily on an age, so 
infirm, and so exposed to injuries. 

I shall now begin to speak of the arts in which the 
future orator should be instructed, and of those things 
which are requisite for him to do and learn in every 
stage of life. 



CHAPTER IV. 

Of Grammar.* 

I. Eulogium on grammar. II. Speech, to be perfect, ought to be cor- 
rect, clear, and elegant. III. It is founded on reason, antiquity, autho- 
rity, and custom. IV. Of orthography. 

I. As soon as a boy is instructed to read and write, 
he should be sent to the grammar school. It is a 

* "Almost all the principles which are now reduced into arts were 
formerly dispersed and dissipated. Thus in grammar; the reading of 
poets, an acquaintance with history, the import of icords, and a certain man- 
ner of articulation ; all these were formerly unknown, or they seemed 
too widely dissipated to be reduced into a system.'' — Cic. de Orat., lib. i. 
cap. 42. 

From this passage of Cicero, and others interspersed throughout the 
Classics, it appears that the ancients, by the study of grammar, under- 
stood the study of what we designate the Belles lettres. 



264 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

matter of little consequence whether he begins with 
Greek or Latin, although I prefer the former; but the 
way that leads to the one leads also to the other. 
Grammar, divided into two parts, comprises "the art 
of speaking correctly, and the interpretation of poets." 
By this division more is to be understood than is ex- 
pressed; for the art of writing is properly joined with 
that of speaking; a correct method of reading precedes 
the interpretation of poets, and with all these is blended 
Criticism.* In this last respect the ancient gramma- 
rians have acted so severely as to stigmatize some pas- 
sages in poets as extremely faulty, and to treat books 
which seemed falsely ascribed to certain authors, as 
spurious children in a family, who had no right of in- 
heritance with the legitimate. Some other writers they 
reduced into a better form; while others they entirely 
excluded from their number. 

It is not sufficient to be well versed in the poets; 
every sort of writers should be examined, not only on 
account of the incidents of history which occur, but 
also for the purpose of furnishing ourselves with a 
variety of expressions which frequently receive autho- 
rity from their authors. Grammar, likewise, cannot 
be perfect without music, since it must describe mea- 
sures and numbers,f nor can any one understand the 
poets without a knowledge of astronomy; who, to 

* Judicium. The object of criticism is to judge what is beautiful, 
and what is faulty in every performance. The Greeks designated tbis 
vrt Kgmxriv. 

■J- Measure consists, in Quintilian's sense, in a proportion of time, and 
artain order of feet. Number, in a proportion of time, but not in the 
order of feet. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 265 

specify the vicissitudes of times and seasons, so fre- 
quently mention the rising and setting of constella- 
tions. Nor should he be ignorant of philosophy; an 
acquaintance with which is necessary for explaining 
many passages in all such poems as enter into an ela- 
borate discussion of some very abstruse natural ques- 
tions. Empedocles among the Greeks, and Yarro and 
Lucretius among the Latins, who wrote philosophical 
systems in verse, contribute essentially to make this 
science necessary. Eloquence crowns the work, and 
assists us to illustrate whatever has been demonstrated, 
with a propriety and copiousness of diction. It is, 
therefore, manifest, that no regard should be paid to 
those who cavil at this art, and consider it as poor and 
trifling.* It is the sure foundation of an orator, and, 
without it, any superstructure will unavoidably fall to 
the ground. It is necessary to youth, pleasant to more 
advanced years, the sweet companion of private hours, 
and the only one of all our studies which possesses 
more solidity than ostentation. * * * * 

II. Now, as every speech should possess these three 
qualifications, of being correct, clear, and elegant, (be- 
cause a justness of expression, the chief beauty of dis- 
course, is comprehended under elegance,) so there are 
many opposite imperfections, into which the rule of 
correct speaking, the first part of grammar, must ex- 
amine. * * * * 

III. To speak and to write well require different 
rules. Speaking is founded on reason, antiquity, au- 

* Ut tenuem acjejunam. 

23 



266 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

thority, and use. Reason depends chiefly on analogy, 
and sometimes on etymology. A certain majesty, and, 
as I may say, religion, recommends antiquity. Autho- 
rity is founded on orators and historians; for the 
necessity of measure excuses poets, unless when two 
words are equally adapted to the harmony of the verse, 
they prefer one to the other. Several examples occur 
in Virgil:* as, — Imo de stirpe recisum : — ^Jrioe quo 
congessere palumbes:\ — Silice in nudd connixa reli- 
quit.% Their imitation, however, may not be improper; 
because the judgment of men of distinguished elo- 
quence stands for a sufficient reason, and to go astray 
with such excellent guides, is honorable. Use or cus- 
tom, however, is the best teacher of language; and, as 
money, to be current, requires to be struck from the 
die of the state, so language, to be received, requires 
the consent of the learned. * * * * 

Ancient words§ have not only zealous advocates, but 
they also confer a certain majesty and delight upon 
discourse ; for, together with the authority of antiquity, 
they charm, from being disused, by an air of novelty. 
We must, however, be very cautious how we use them; 
for often adopted, they become too remarkable; and 
nothing is more odious than affectation. Nor would I 
have them drawn from the remotest periods, and now 
entirely obliterated from our minds: such are Topper, \\ 
and antigerio,\ and exanclare, and prosapia, and the 
poems of the Salii, which are scarcely understood by 
their own priests. Religion has prohibited their alter- 
ation, and we must use them as consecrated things. 

* JBn., xii. 208. f Eel, iii. 69. J Ibid., i. 15. 

§ Verba a vetustate repetita. || Cito. IT Valde. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 267 

But how faulty will a discourse be whose chief qualifi- 
cation is perspicuity, should it want an interpreter ? 
Therefore, as the best of new words are such as have 
already been used by the learned, so the best of the 
ancient are those which have the beauty of novelty. 

A similar course may be adopted with regard to 
authority ; for, although it is not improper to use the 
manner of expression of illustrious authors, yet we 
should consider not so much what they have said, as 
what they have persuaded. For who among us could 
bear tuburchinahundum and lurchinahundum, though 
Cato's authority may be cited for their use. A similar 
judgment may be passed on the hos lodices of Pollio, 
the gladiola of Messala, the parricidatum of Caelius, 
and the collos of Calvus: all which expressions these 
authors, if now existing, would reject. 

Use or custom remains to be examined. And here 
it appears somewhat ridiculous that any persons should 
prefer the ancient to the modern manner of speech. 
This ancient manner of speech, what is it but the an- 
cient custom of speaking ? But it must be judged and 
determined what is to be understood by the word custom. 
If the appellation is received from what is accomplished 
by many, it will be productive of very dangerous con- 
sequences, not only to language, but (what is a more 
important consideration) to the conduct of life. What 
is it that adds to our happiness ? Is it not to behold 
the world improved in goodness ? If pernicious exam- 
ples now prevail,* if the taste of the city is for adopt- 

* Igilur ut velli. By velli, in the Latin text, is understood an effemi- 
nate practice among the Romans, of plucking out the hair in order to 
make their skin smooth. — See Juvenal and Persius, 



268 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

ing the effeminacy of adjusting the hair into ringlets,* 
shall these, and similar vices, be reputed the custom, 
though they may universally prevail ? No, not one of 
them is free from reprehension. But to bathe, to 
shave, to participate of the pleasures of the table in 
virtuous company is a custom; and so with regard to 
language; follow the general manner, and your lan- 
guage will be corrupt; you will discover a thousand 
improprieties in the mouths of the vulgar and the ig- 
norant; the theatres, f and all the public places J in the 
city ring with barbarisms. I shall, therefore, call the 

* Et comam in gradus fr anger e. 

t Tota scepe. theatra. Theatres, so called from the Greek 3sao/u«», to 
see, owe their original to Bacchus. They were usual in several parts 
of Greece ; and were afterwards, as other institutions, borrowed by the 
Romans. In the first ages of the commonwealth they were only tem- 
porary, and composed of wood, which, according to Pliny, sometimes 
tumbled down with great destruction. The most celebrated of these 
temporary theatres was that of M. Scaurus, the eavea of which had 
seats for 80,000 men. 

Pompey the Great was the first who raised a fixed theatre. Some 
remains of this theatre are still to be seen at Rome, as also those of 
Marcellus, Statilius Taurus, Tiberius, and Titus. — Vide Fabricii Rom., 
cap. 12; Plin., lib. 36, cap. 15. 

J Et omnem circi turbam. The Circi were places set apart for the 
cultivation of several sorts of games. They were generally oblong, or 
almost in the shape of a bow, having a wall quite around, with ranges 
of seats for the convenience of the spectators. 

There were several of these Circi at Rome, as those of Flaminius, 
Nero, Caracalla, and Severus; but the most remarkable was Circus 
Maximus, built by Tarquinius Priscus, with seats for 150,000 men. It 
was extremely beautiful, and adorned by succeeding princes, particu- 
larly by Julius Caesar, Augustus, Caligula, Domitian, Trajan, and Helio- 
gabalus; and enlarged to such an extent, as to be able to contain, in 
their proper seats, 260,000 spectators. — See Plin., lib. 36; Liv., et Dio- 
nys. Hal. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 269 

genuine custom of speaking the consent of the learned; 
as that of living, the approbation of the good. 

Now, since we have described the rule of speaking, 
we shall acid a few words on that of writing. The 
Greeks call it orthography, and we the science of 
writing correctly. Unless custom should direct other- 
wise, I would have every word written as pronounced : 
for the use and object of letters are to preserve sounds, 
and to exhibit them faithfully to the eyes of the reader, 
as a pledge committed to his charge. They ought, 
therefore, to express what we have to say. 

These are chiefly the two parts of grammar, which 
treat of speaking and writing correctly: I deprive not 
grammarians of the other two, adapted for speaking 
with force and elegance; but shall reserve them for a 
greater part of this work, in which I intend to explain 
the functions of a rhetorician. 

But some may consider what I have hitherto said, as 
too trifling, and an obstacle to my greater design. I 
do not, indeed, believe that the orator should descend 
to all the insignificant niceties of grammar; for their 
study would embarrass the conceptions of his mind, 
and dull the vivacity of his genius. But nothing of 
grammar can be injurious, except its superfluities. 
Was Marcus Tullius less the orator for his exact ob- 
servance of the precepts of this art ? And did he not 
charge his son (as appears from his Epistles) to be rigidly 
instructed in the propriety of language ? Did Caesar's 
books of Analogy weaken his manly thought and ex- 
pression ? Or is Messala less elegant* because he com- 

* Minus nitidus. 

23* 



270 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

posed whole volumes, not only on words, but even let- 
ters ? This knowledge is only prejudicial to those who 
make it a particular study; but not to him who curso- 
rily considers it with a view to other acquirements. 



CHAPTER V. 



What books are proper for children to read, and the method of teaching 
them to read. 



I NOW proceed to reading, which cannot be properly 
directed by any determinate rules: experience being 
the only method for informing a child where he is to 
draw breath, where he must divide the verse, where the 
sense begins and ends ; when the voice is to be raised 
and lowered, and when it is to be changed and bent 
into a quick or slow, vehement or gentle tone. There 
is one thing, however, I recommend in this respect; 
and this is, that the child may be made to understand 
what he reads. Let, therefore, his reading be manly, 
tempered with a mixture of gravity and sweetness ; not 
indeed, in the tone of prose, as it is a poem, and poets 
show that they observe harmonic proportion: still it 
should not retain (as now generally practised) the mo- 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 271 

dulation of an air of music; nor should it be thrilled* 
into effeminate softness. These affected strains in read- 
ing were censured by Caesar while very young :f "If 
you sing," said he, "you sing badly; if you read you 
sing." J Nor do I desire Prosopopoeias§ to be pro- 
nounced, according to some, in a theatrical manner; 
there should, however, be a slight inflection of the 
voice, in order to distinguish between what the poet 
says, and what he makes others say. 

There are other things which require precaution; 
and chiefly, that the tender and untutored minds of 
children, as yet susceptible of deep impressions, should 
be imbued, not only with what is beautiful and elo- 
quent, but in a greater degree with what is good and 
honest. The reading, therefore, of Homer and Virgil 
first, was wisely instituted, although to understand their 
beauties, is the work of a more mature judgment : but 
there will be time enough to accomplish this object, 

* Plasma, in the Latin text, is interpreted by some, a potion to remove 
hoarseness, and mellow the voice: Liquido cum plasmate guttur mo- 
bile collueris. — Pers., sat. i. 17. Others suppose it means an affected 
softness and delicacy of voice : 

Vocem eliquat, et tenero supplantat verba potato. — Pers. 

"f" Adhuc prcetextatum. The Toga Preetexta was a white robe reaching 
down to the ankles, with a border of purple around the edges, in allu- 
sion to which the Greeks call it 'rrs^i'no^v^oy. Dacier on Horace, lib. v, 
ode 5, says : " The boys, till they were thirteen years old, wore a sort 
of vest with sleeves, which they called Alicata Chlamys, and then left 
off that to put on the Prestexta, which they did not change till they had 
reached the age of puberty, or the seventeenth year. Persius, in his 
fifth Satire, calls it custos purpura. 

J Si cantas, male cantas • si legis cantas. 

§ Speeches put into the mouths of the different characters in a poem. 



272 THE AKT OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

as they will be read frequently. The majesty of 
heroic poetry will, in the meantime, give them an ele- 
vation of thought; the magnitude of the subject will 
inspire them with noble conceptions ; and their hearts 
will be improved by the best precepts. 

Tragedy* and Jjyric\ poetry are also conducive to 

* Utiles Tragcedice. Tragedy, (from f^kyoq, a goat, joined to a>$j, a 
song,) the song of the goat, and Comedy, (from xwjun, a village, and ufo, 
a song,) the song of the village, sufficiently indicate the humility of 
their first original. A goat, as the particular enemy of the vine, was 
very properly sacrificed to Bacchus, whose praises composed the song. 
They originated amidst the sacrifices and joyous festivities of the vint- 
age; and during the entertainments of a season peculiarly dedicated to 
recreation and pleasure, the susceptible minds of the Greeks naturally 
yielded to two propensities congenial to men in such circumstances, a 
desire to exercise their sensibility, and a disposition to amuse their fancy. 
Availing himself of the former, the sublime genius of iEschylus, the 
father of tragedy, improved the song of the goat into a regular drama- 
tic poem, agreeing with the Iliad and Odyssey in those unalterable rules 
of design and execution which are essential to the perfection of every 
literary performance. 

As tragedy was introduced in imitation of the more serious spectacles 
of the Dionysian festival, so Comedy, which soon followed, was owing 
to the more light and ludicrous parts of that solemnity. Tragedy is the 
imitation of an important and serious action, adapted to affect the sen- 
sibility of the spectators, and to gratify their natural propensity to fear, 
to weep, and to wonder. Terror and pity have, in all ages, been re- 
garded as the mainsprings of tragedy; because the laws of sensibility, 
founded solely in nature, are always the same. 

Comedy is the imitation of a light and ludicrous action, adapted to 
amuse the fancy and to gratify the natural disposition of men to laughter 
and merriment. — Gillies' 1 Greece, chap. xiii. 

f Alunt et Lyrici. Lyric poetry, or the Ode, imports that the verses 
are accompanied by a lyre, or musical instrument. This distinction was 
not, at first, peculiar to any one species of poetry ; for music and poetry 
were coeval, and were originally always joined together. But after 
their separation, such poems as were designed to be still joined with 
music, or song, were, by way of eminence, called Odes. And their dis- 






ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 273 

nurture the minds of children; but of the latter, some 
select parts only ought to be read, because Greek lyrics 
are often written too licentiously, and Horace, in some 
places, I should be unwilling to explain. As to Ele- 
gies which treat of love, and Hendecas syllables,* in 
which are scraps of Sotadean verses,^ (for Sotadean 
verses should not even be mentioned,) let them, if 
practicable, be entirely excluded; if not, let them be 
reserved, at least, for years of wiser reflection. I shall 
speak, in its place, of the advantages of comedy, which 
may greatly contribute to the improvement of elo- 
quence, by reason of its assumed prerogative for paint- 
ing the manners, and characters, and passions, of 
mankind. For when morals are safe, it may be a 
principal study. I speak of MenanderJ not to exclude 

tinguishing characteristic was, that they vjere sung by a chorus, who accom- 
panied the various inflections of the voice with suitable attitudes and movements 
of the body. The lyric poetry of the Greeks thus united the pleasures 
of the ear, of the eye, and of the understanding. 

There is no distinction of subject incident to lyric poetry, except that 
other poems are often employed in the recital of actions, whereas senti- 
ments of one kind or other, form, almost always, the subject of the Ode. 
But it is chiefly the spirit and manner of its execution that characterize 
it; and hence the fire, the animation, the enthusiasm which accom- 
pany it. Hence that neglect of regularity, those* digressions, and that 
wild disorder which it is supposed to admit. 

Pindar was prince of Grecian lyric poets ; and among the Latins, for 
correctness, harmony, and happy expression, none can equal Horace. — 
See Gillies' 1 Greece, chap. vi. ; Blair, lect. xxxix. 

* Hendecasyllabic, lines or verses consisting of eleven syllables. 

f Sotadeorum. Sotadean verses have frequent caesuras or falls; and 
their signification is different, as read either backward or forward. 
Sotades, a poet of Crete, was their author. Their tendency was gene- 
rally to immorality. 

X Menander was a celebrated comic poet of Athens. Terence imi- 



274 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

others: and even the Latins are not without their 
utility. But boys should be induced to read such 
books as enlarge their minds, and strengthen their 
genius: and other subjects, which pertain to erudition, 
can be acquired in more advanced years. 

Although more genius than art appears in the writ- 
ings of the old Latin j)oets, they may, nevertheless, be 
of singular advantage, on account of their energy of 
expression. Majesty may be found in their tragedies, 
elegance in their comedies, and a kind of Attic taste. 
The arrangement of their pieces is also better con- 
ducted than most of the moderns, who consider striking 
thoughts to be the perfection of all good writing. It 
is unquestionably in the works of the ancients that we 
must seek for those noble sentiments, and that manly 
character of writing which have been obliterated from 
among us, since delicacy and refinement in every spe- 
cies of pleasure have vitiated our style with our man- 
ners. Finally, we may rely upon the authority of 
the greatest orators, who have quoted the verses of 
ancient poets, either as proofs of their pleadings, or 
an ornament to their eloquence. Cicero, Asinius, and 
their cotemporaries interspersed their discourses with 
the verses of Ennius, Accius, Pacuvius, Lucilius, Ter- 
ence, Caacilius,* and other poets, which adorned them 

tated him so nearly, that Cicero said he only translated him, and Caesar 
called him dimidialum Menandnim. The kings of Egypt and Macedon 
sent ambassadors to invite him to their courts ; but Menander preferred 
the free enjoyment of his studies to the promised favors of the great. 
Only four of his numerous comedies are preserved. 

* The greatest number of eminent poets, especially dramatic writers, 
nourished between the end of the first and the third Punic wars; or 
from the year of the city 512 to 607. The most considerable were Li- 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 275 

not only with the highest graces of erudition, but of 
pleasure; since they proved a source of pleasure to the 
auditory, whose ears, disgusted with the clamorous con- 
tentions of the bar, were refreshed with the variety of 
poetical numbers. Add to this the great advantage on 
the orator's side when he confirms the matter in debate 
with the illustrious testimony of some striking thought 
of these great men. What I first inculcated has refer- 
ence to children; the last reflections are designed for 
more mature years, in order that the study of grammar 
and love of reading may not be terminated by the time 
we spend at school, but rather extended to the last 
period of our lives. 

When a grammarian first explains a poet, he should 
make his pupil acquainted with some little matters, 
such as the construction of words, by interrupting the 
order of the verse; as also the properties of the feet, 
which ought to be so well known in poetry as to be 
required in reading prose; and besides these, he should 
point out all barbarisms, improprieties of speech, and 
words arranged contrary to the rules of speaking. 
Poets, however, should not be censured on these ac- 
counts; because the allowances for measure are so con- 
siderable, that we even disguise their faults under the 
titles of figurative* expressions, and give the praise of 
virtue to necessity. But the grammarian will give 
notice of such words as are peculiar to the poetical 

vius Andronicus, Nsevius, Ennius, Pacuvius, Accius, Ccecilius, Plautus, 
Afranius, Terence, and Lucilius.' 1 '' — Ken. Rom. Antiq. 

* Metaplasmos. Metaplasmus is a figure, when some letter in a word 
is changed upon the account of verse, ornament, or necessity. 



276 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

art, and wherever children meet them, their memory 
will suggest what they ought to call them. 

It will also be useful, in the first rudiments, to teach 
the different significations of words as they occur; and 
to explain those which are not in much use, is not the 
least duty of his profession. But a more important 
one consists in teaching all tropes,* which add such 
extraordinary beauties both to verse and prose; and 
with these the 'figures^ of thoughts J and words :§ both 
of these I shall discuss when I come to speak of the 
ornaments of discourse. 

But a master will impress upon the mind of the 
pupil the advantages which accrue from a regular ar- 
rangement of any composition; the decorum which is 
to be observed in things ; what is suitable to each cha- 
racter; in what the beauty of sentiments and force of 
expression consist; where a copious style may be pleas- 
ing, and where conciseness is requisite. 

Next follows the interpretation of history, in which 
youth should be well versed; but not to such exactness 
as to load their memories with its superfluous parts. 
It is enough to expound what is commonly received, or 
at least to make them acquainted with the incidents 
recorded by the most eminent authors. For it will 
be either exceedingly troublesome, or a piece of vain 
boasting, to want to know what every insignificant 

* A trope (from r^svoo, to turn) is the turning a word from its native 
and proper to a relative improved sense. 

f A figure (from jingo, to fashion) is the fashioning and dress of speech'. 
or, it is that language which is suggested either by the imagination or 
the passions. 

J Siavo/a?. § Xsfsa;?. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 277 

writer may have said, which must retard and bewilder 
the mind that can attend with more utility to other 
matters. He who examines every page unfit for read- 
ing, may as well apply himself to old women's tales. 
The commentaries of grammarians are full of these 
embarrassing remarks, which are scarcely known to 
those who composed them. For it is recorded, that 
when Didymus,* the greatest compiler of books that 
ever existed, treated as fabulous a piece of history, one 
of his own books was produced which contained the 
passage. Hence we see the ridiculous pretensions of 
romance, which gives license to every impudent fellow 
of fabricating any visionary story, (presuming he may 
deceive with safety,) and quoting in its support books 
and authors which never existed. But in matters of 
greater notoriety they are most frequently detected by 
the learned. f I shall, therefore, account it among the 
accomplishments of a grammarian to be ignorant of 
many things which require no particular notice.% 

* A celebrated grammarian of Alexandria, who lived in the age of 
Augustus Caesar, and is said to have written three thousand five hundred 
volumes. 

| A curiosis. J JLliqua nescire. 



24 



278 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 



CHAPTER VI. 

Of the first exercises in the grammar school. 

I have discussed the two parts of grammar which 
comprehend the* rules for speaking, and the interpreta- 
tion of authors: grammarians call the first of these 
Methodical, the other Historical. We must also com- 
mit to their care the first exercises of children, which 
may keep them employed until they are of a proper 
age to be sent to the school of oratory. -ZEsop's fables 
may naturally follow those of their nurses. Then let 
them learn to relate these fables in plain words, with- 
out any elevated turn; next, to divest them of their 
plain dress, and to express them in a more elegant 
style. This is effected by first breaking the verses, 
then explaining them in other words; and lastly, by 
giving them a bolder turn in a free paraphrase; by 
which they are permitted, provided they keep to the 
sense of the poet, to abridge some places, and embel- 
lish the whole with little ornaments. This is a diffi- 
cult work for the most accomplished masters ; and the 
boy who can acquit himself well in this respect, will be 
capable of attempting to learn anything. Sentences,* 
Chrias, and Ethologies, which are remarkable words 

* Sentences, called by the Greeks yvdifxai, and Chrias, (which are short 
moral sentences for exercises in rhetoric,) are explained in " The Ele- 
ments of Oratory" page 248. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 279 

spoken with the reasons annexed, should likewise make 
a part of the grammarian's function, because they 
occur in reading authors, from which they are ex- 
tracted. They are all constructed by the same art, 
but different in form. The Sentence is a term of uni- 
versal acceptation: Ethology is restricted to persons. 
There are many kinds of Chrias. The first is, like 
the sentence, conceived in a few words: as, " dixit 
ille," aut "dicere solebat;" "he said," or "was accus- 
tomed to say." The second, by way of answer: "In- 
terrogatus ille:" vel, "cum hoc ei dictum esset, re- 
spondit:" "being asked," or "when this was said to 
him, he answered." The third is not unlike the pre- 
ceding, as when one has not spoken, but done some- 
thing: for Chrias are supposed to extend also to facts: 
as, " Crates cum indoctum puerum vidisset, psedagogum 
ejus percussit:" "Crates, observing a boy who had 
learned nothing, struck his master." There is another 
nearly similar to this; yet none dare call it so, but 
only a sort of Chria;* as, " Milo, quern vitulum assue- 
verat ferre, taurum ferebat:" "The beast that Milo 
accustomed himself to carry," etc. In all thesef the 
same case is used, and a reason is given for each fact 
and saying. As to little narratives recorded by poets, I 
think that to understand them is sufficient for children, 
without explaining them according to the rules of elo- 

* X^EiZh?. 

f All these Chrias retain commonly the same form, and the same 
cases in the beginning. But grammarians observe the cases to be thus 
restricted: — U M. P. Cato dixit literarum radices amaras esse, fructus 
jucundiores. M. P. Catonis dictum fertur, fyc. M. P. Calonem dixisse 
ferunt" fyc. 



280 THE ART OF RHETORIC : OR, 

quence. There are other things of greater consequence 
transferred by our Latin rhetoricians to grammarians: 
but the Greeks are more exact in distinguishing and 
adhering to the respective duties of teaching. 



CHAPTER VII. 



Children should be instructed in several arts before they commence the 
study of oratory. Are these arts necessary to the future orator ? 

I have now discussed, as succinctly as I could, 
the subject of grammar; not that I pretend to have 
exhausted the subject, which is infinite, but only to 
have exhibited those things which were considered 
essentially necessary. I shall now briefly subjoin a 
few remarks on those other arts in which youth should 
be instructed before they are sent to the school of 
rhetoric, in order to form that circle of sciences which 
the Greeks call syxvx7,ortai$6Lav.* As there are many 
sciences, the study of which ought to begin almost at 
the same time, a question may here arise: are these 
sciences necessary to this work?f As arts, oratory 
cannot be perfect without them; nor are they capable, 

* Encyclopedia, (ex h in, hIkXo; circulus, et iraifeia doctrina,) a circle 
of sciences. 

f " In my opinion, no man can deserve the name of an accomplished 
orator without a perfect knowledge of all the arts." — Cic. de Orat., lib. 
i. cap. 6. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 281 

taken separately, of constituting an orator. But to 
plead a cause, or deliver an opinion, where is the 
necessity, say our opponents, of knowing that, upon a 
given line, we can form an Isosceles triangle ? Or, does 
the defence of a client, or the enforcement of counsel 
by persuasive arguments, require the skill of distin- 
guishing by names and intervals the different tones of 
an instrument of music ? They may also enumerate 
how many orators have rendered themselves illustrious 
at the bar who never heard of geometry, or understood 
music, except by the pleasure of the ears, which is 
common to all. 

To these objections I reply, according to what Cicero 
often declares, in his book of illustrious orators,* to 
Brutus, that we form not an orator on the model of 
those who are, or have been; but that we have con- 
ceived in our mind the image of that perfect orator to 
whom nothing is wanting. The Stoics, f to form their 
perfect sage, and, as they say, a god, though subject to 
mortality, think that he must be versed, not only in the 
knowledge of all divine and human things, but they also 
lead him through all intricate ambiguities, things in- 
considerable in themselves: not because captiousj and 

* Or at. 7. 

f Zeno was the founder of this sect. He placed the Summum bonum 
in virtue. He taught at Athens in the " iroa noatiXn" " the Painted Por- 
tico ;" and hence his disciples derived the appellation of Stoics. And 
the portico itself is usually put for that sect of philosophers, as when 
Athenseus calls Zeno tns Iroag xna-h, the founder of the Stoics. For 
their doctrines see Cic. de finibus, Anian, and Seneca. 

J Ceratince. Dilemmas, called by logicians Argumenta Cornuta, for 
striking with two horns, in which, whatever you grant to your oppo- 
nent, tends to your own disadvantage. '■'■You have the horns (Kigara); you 

24* 



282 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

sophistical* arguments constitute a sage, but that they 
would have him incapable of being deceived, even in 
the smallest matters. In like manner, it is not geome- 
try, nor music, nor any other art, which I can desig- 
nate, that will make an orator, (who must likewise be 
a sage,) but these arts will contribute to his perfection. 
Are not antidotes, and other medicines prescribed for 
diseases and wounds, compounded of many ingredients, 
which separately produce contrary effects ; but mixed, 
become, as it were, a specific, extracting healing vir- 
tues from all the constituent parts without resembling 
any one of them ? Do not bees sip their honey from 
a variety of flowers and juices, the taste of which is 
inimitable by human invention ? Shall we then be 
surprised if eloquence, the most excellent gift Provi- 
dence has imparted to mankind, should require the 
assistance of many arts, which, though they may not 
manifest themselves in the orator, yet have an occult 
force, operating imperceptibly, and tacitly giving warn- 
ing of their presence. " Such were good speakers with- 
out these arts;" but I will have an orator.^ "They do 
not add much;" but I must have a complete whole: and 
to make this whole nothing must be wanting; for so it 

did not lose : you did not lose any ; therefore you have horns" — Aid. Gell., 
lib. 16. 

* Crocodilinee. These are problems which cannot be satisfactorily 
solved. "A crocodile, when he had promised a woman that he would restore 
her son if she told him truth; she said, you will not restore him" — Lucian, ev 

■f- Fuit aliquis sine his disertus ; at ego oratorem volo, etc. " Without 
these a man may be eloquent, but I wish to form an orator; and none 
can be said to have all these requisites while the smallest thing is 
wanting." 



ELEMENTS OP ORATOKY. 283 

must be admitted to be perfect. However elevated its 
sphere may be above us, it is our intention to give all 
necessary precepts for making the nearest possible ap- 
proaches. But why should we despair ? Nature is no 
obstacle to the perfect orator : and despair is base when 
a thing is practicable. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

Of music, and its advantages. 



I could rest satisfied, upon this subject, with the 
testimony of the ancients. For who is ignorant, that 
music was not only a study of the earliest times,* but 
was even held in such a degree of veneration, that mu- 
sicians were honored as sages, and as men divinely 
inspired ? Were not Orpheusf and LinusJ (to name 
no more) believed to be descended of the gods ? And 
Orpheus, because he polished the manners of an igno- 
rant and rustic people, and astonished their minds with 
the harmony of his music, was reported, as we learn 
from tradition, not only to have drawn after him wild 

* "While detraction referred the discovery of music to strangers, 
vanity referred it to the gods; and both accounts concur to prove the 
great antiquity of the art." — Plutarch, de Musica. 

f See Plat, de Repub., lib. x. ; Hor., art. Poet, 392; Virg. Eel., iv. 55. 

£ Linus was preceptor to Orpheus. See Virg. Eel., iv. 56, and vi. 67. 



284 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

beasts, but also rocks and woods. Timagenes* relates, 
that music is the most ancient of all the arts: and, in 
this opinion the most celebrated poets concur, who, at 
the royal banquets, introduce musicians tuning to their 
lyre the praises of gods and heroes. Does not Virgil's 
Sopas sing — The wandering moon and labors of the 
sun ? By which that admirable poet openly avows, 
that music is joined with the knowledge of divine 
things. Should this be admitted, it must likewise be 
granted that it is necessary to an orator: because this 
part, neglected by orators, and taken possession of by 
philosophers, we have a right to reclaim: and without 
a knowledge of all the arts, eloquence cannot be per- 
fect. 

No one can doubt but that those men who distin- 
guished themselves for wisdom, were ardently devoted 
to the study of music. Pythagoras and his followers 
published the opinion, which, no doubt, they received 
from more ancient times, that the world was the effect 
of harmonical proportion, the modulations of which 
were afterwards imitated by the lyre. And not con- 
tent with the harmony perceived to be propagated 
amidst contraries, they also attributed musical tones to 
the celestial spheres. For Plato, in some of his writ- 
ings, especially in his Timaeus,t cannot be understood, 

* Timagenes, a rhetorician and historian of Alexandria, brought cap- 
tive to Rome by Galbinius, and redeemed by Faustus, the son of Sylla. 
Having been discarded by Augustus he destroyed his history of that 
emperor. — See Hor., lib. i. epist. xix. v. 15. 

"f" Timceus, a Pythagorean philosopher of Locris, by whose name Plato 
entitled one of his Dialogues, and whose order Aristotle followed in the 
arrangement of his Physics. 

" Timseus lived later than these, (Xenophon and Calisthenes,) but, so 



ELEMENTS OF OKATORY. 285 

except by those who are thoroughly acquainted with 
this art. Why do I speak of philosophers, whose 
fountain,* Socrates himself, did not blush, even in old 
age, to learn to play upon the lyre ? History reports 
that the greatest generalsf played upon pipes and 
lutes; and that the Lacedemonians J were fired to 
battle by musical strains. For what other use are 
clarions and trumpets in our legions ? Whose sounds, 
by how much the more vehement they are, by so much 
does the Roman glory exceed that of all others. Plato§ 
therefore believed, not without reason, that music was 
necessary to those in civil life to whom the administra- 

far as I can judge, he was by far the most learned, the best furnished 
with the richness of materials, and variety of sentiments ; and by no 
means unskilful in the composition of style." — Cic. de Or at., lib. ii. 
cap. xiv. 

" Timaeus, a writer, it is true, sufficiently skilled in other points, and 
who sometimes reaches the genuine sublime." — Long., sect. iv. 

* Quintilian calls Socrates the Fountain, and Cicero designates him. 
the Prince of philosophers. He was preceptor to Plato and Xenophon. 

f Cornelius Nepos says, that Epaminondas well understood the art 
of playing upon the harp and flute. 

J The Lacedemonians were particularly remarkable for beginning 
their battles with a concert of flutes. — See Xenophon, Maximus, the Sy- 
rian, Thucydides (lib. v.), Vol. Maximus (lib. ii. cap. 6), and Lucian. 

Plutarch says : " The army being drawn up in battle array, and the 
enemy near, the soldiers were commanded to adorn their heads with 
garlands, and the Fluters to play Kua-rogeiov /wsXoj, the tune of Castor's 
hymn. The general then advancing began a hymn to Mars, called irata? 
s(A.£cnn£io$, or alarm; so that it was at once a delightful and terrible 
sight to see them march on, keeping pace to the tune of their flutes, 
without ever troubling their order, or confounding their ranks, their 
music leading them into danger cheerful and unconcerned." 

§ "Even the philosophers dare not maintain that geometry and music 
are the qualities of philosophers, because it is admitted that Plato was, 
in the highest degree, master of those arts." — Cic. de Orat., lib. i. cap. 50. 



286 

tion of republics might be entrusted. And the authors 
of that sect, which appears so very severe to some, and 
so rigid to others, were of opinion, that some of their 
sages might apply themselves to this study. And Ly- 
curgus, that inflexible Spartan lawgiver, recommended 
the use of music. Nature herself seems to have con- 
ferred it as a gift upon us, for mitigating our labors. 
Does not music invigorate those who are toiling at the 
oar? This appears not only in painful operations, 
where many unite their efforts by the signal of some 
pleasing voice; but even each person has some favorite 
air for allaying fatigue. 

But I seem rather to eulogize this most beautiful art 
than to show how it may be applicable to the orator. 
I may, therefore, omit what is said of music and gram- 
mar being formerly joined together; although Archy- 
tas* and Aristoxenusf were of opinion that grammar 
was comprehended under music, and that both were 
taught by the same masters; adopting the opinion of 
Sophron,J a comic writer, whom Plato so much esteemed 
that his books, it is said, were found under his head on 
his death bed. Eupolis§ affirms the same thing with 

* jirchytas, a Pythagorean philosopher of Tarentum, Plato's master 
in geometry. — See Hor., lib. i. Od. 28; Cic. de Senect., cap. xii. ; Tusc. 
QucEst., lib. v. 22. 

"I" Aristoxenus, a philosopher and musician of Tarentum, and pupil of 
Xenophilus and Aristotle. 

J Sophron, a Sicilian mitnographer and comic poet. — .See Valerius 
Mazimus, lib. viii. cap. 7. 

§ An Athenian comic poet. He used the freedom of the ancient 
comedy to lash the vices of the people: and having lost his life in a sea 
fight between the Athenians and Lacedemonians, his death was so 
lamented that a statute was enacted, which decreed, that no poet should 
afterwards bear arms. 



ELEMENTS OF OKATORY. 287 

regard to Prodamus, whom he designates as a teacher 
of music and grammar; and Hyperbofus, whom he 
calls by derision Maricas, confesses that he knows no- 
thing of music except grammar. Aristophanes also 
assures us, in more than one place, that this was the 
ancient method of instructing youth. And Menander, 
in his comedy called Hyperbolimseum, introduces a 
father taking his son out of a boarding-school, before 
whom an old governor of the school sums up what he 
had expended upon his son's education, and gives him 
a bill, in which was so much paid to a master of geo- 
metry, and so much to a music master. Hence origi- 
nated the custom of handing about a lyre at the end 
of an entertainment; and because Themistocles,* when 
that instrument was presented to him, declared he 
knew not how to play, to use Cicero's own words, he 
was reckoned a person of no polite education. It was 
the custom of the ancient Romans to procure the 
amusement of pipes and lutes at their banquets. And 
as these institutions proceed from King Numa,f it is 

Longinus on the Sublime, in sect, xvi., quotes these lines of Eupolis : 

" No, by my laurels earned at Marathon, 
They shall not glory in my discontent." 

See Hor., lib. i. Sat. 4; lib. ii. Sat. 3, v. 12. 

* Themietocles, cum in epulis recusaret lyram, habitus est indoctior." 
— Tusc. Qucest., lib. i. 2. 

"Nor doth his skilful hand refuse 
Acquaintance with the tuneful muse, 
When round the mirthful board the harp is borne." 

Pindar, Ode I. 

f "Through them (Harmony and Sounds) we rise, we kindle, then 
sink and languish ; they often put us in a cheerful, and often in a 



288 

manifest, that though the thoughts of the ancient Ro- 
mans were turned to warlike exploits, they did not 
neglect the study of music in as great a degree as 
could be expected from those who lived in so rude an 
age. It has, therefore, passed into a proverb with the 
Greeks, that the illiterate must have no intercourse 
with the muses and graces. But let us explain in 
what respects this art may belong to the future orator. 
Music has two numbers; the one in the voice, the 
other in the body. Each of these requires a certain 
regulation. Aristoxenus, the musician, divides what 
regards the voice into Rhythms* and measured Melo- 
dies. By rhythms he understands the structure of 
words, and by measured melodies the airs and sounds. 
Do not all these require the orator's notice ? Must not 
his body be formed to regular gesture ? Must he not, 
in composition, place his words in proper order ? Must 
he not, in pronouncing, use certain inflections of the 
voice ? All these are unquestionably necessary quali- 
fications for an orator, unless we think that a certain 
structure of words, amusing the ear agreeably, should 
be entirely restricted to songs and verses, and there- 
fore useless in oratory: or that the orator was not to 
diversify his composition and pronunciation according 

melancholy mood; their wonderful magic is best adapted to verses and 
odes ; and there I imagine our learned prince, Numa, and our ancestors 
were sensible of this, as appears by the musical instruments introduced 
in the solemn banquets, and the verses of the Salii." — Cic. de Orat., lib. 
iii. cap. 51. 

* " The grandeur of the Doric, the polished elegance of the Ionic, 
and the soothing sweetness of the Eolic mode, must have resulted from 
the Rhythm, or measure, which, governing the movement of the verse, 
thereby determined its expression." — Lucian Harmon, sub initio. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 289 

to the nature of the things of which he speaks, as well 
as the musician, whose compositions, according to their 
respective qualities, must be expressed and sung dif- 
ferently. For the grand and sublime are best repre- 
sented by loud and strong tones,* pleasant by sweet, 
and gentle by soft: the beauty of the musical art de- 
pending entirely upon entering into the passions, and 
making them a lively picture of what is expressed. 
The orator, in like manner, according to the elevation, 
depression, or change of voice, will differently excite 
the passions of the audience. By such an order of 
words, by such a tone of voice, he arouses the indigna- 
tion of the judges, and by another he bends their hearts 
to pity. Who can now doubt of the power of words, 
when even musical instruments, which cannot form the 
articulate sounds of speech, affect us so many different 
ways? 

A graceful and proper motion of the body, which is 
called Eurythmia, is also necessary, and cannot be 
otherwise derived than from this art; but as it consti- 
tutes an important part of action, we shall speak of it 
in another place. And, indeed, if an orator shall 

* "Every species of verse (and of verse there were above a hun- 
dred different kinds) occasioned a change of musical measure, and 
introduced what, in musical language, may be called a different time. 
A slow succession of lengthened tones expressed moderation and firm- 
ness ; a rapid inequality of verse betrayed disorderly and ignoble pas- 
sions; the mind was transported by sudden transitions, and roused by 
impetuous reiterations of sounds ; a gradual ascent of notes accorded 
with all those affections which warm and expand the heart,- and the 
contrary movement naturally coincided with such sentiments as depress 
the spirits, and extinguish the generous ardor of the soul." — Gillies, 
chap. v. 

25 



290 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

exhibit due attention to his voice, what can be so 
essential to him as music ? But as I must speak of 
the voice elsewhere, I shall here content myself with 
one example. Caius Gracchus,* the greatest orator of 
his time, whenever he harangued the public, kept a 
musician always behind him to guide by the sounds of 
a flute the different changes of his voice. This custom, 
either dreaded by, or dreading the nobility, he strictly 
observed in all his speeches, which were generally at- 
tended by the greatest multitudes that ever assembled 
upon such occasions. 

But for the advantage of those who are inexperi- 
enced in this matter, I shall endeavor to remove all 
doubt of its utility. It will be granted that poets 
should be read by the future orator : but are poets des- 
titute of music ?f If any one is so devoid of under- 
standing as to doubt concerning some, it must, at least, 
be admitted, that verses composed for the lyre cannot 
be read without emotion. J I should discuss this sub- 
ject at greater length if I introduced a new study; but 
as this accomplishment has been recommended from 

* " Therefore, Catulus, you might have heard from Licinius, who is 
your client, a man of learning, and the secretary of Gracchus, that 
Gracchus made use of an ivory flute, which a man, who stood privately 
behind him while he was speaking, touched so skillfully that he imme- 
diately struck the proper note when he wanted either to quicken or to 
soften the vehemence of his voice." — Cic. de Orat., lib. hi. cap. 60. 

■j" "Music, in ancient times, was closely connected with poetry; and 
hence the same words signified a song and a poem, a musician and a 
poet: <w$a«, a^fAATet] oo$oi, wdixoi, aotfioi." — Hesychius. 

J "One of the chief difficulties in composing odes arises from that 
enthusiasm which is understood to be a characteristic of lyric poetry. ." — Blair, 
lect. xxxix. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 291 

the remote times of Chiron* and Achillesf down to 
this period,X with the approbation of all lovers of a 
good education, a longer defence might raise a doubt 
of its utility. 

It may clearly appear, from the above examples, 
how much I esteem music, and what kind of music I 
approve. I must, however, openly declare, that I in 
nowise recommend the music which now prevails in our 
theatrical exhibitions, § and of which those soft and 
voluptuous airs have, in a great measure, extinguished 
all the manly virtue which remained among us. The 
music to which I allude is that by which the brave 
sung the praises of the brave. Nor do I approve those 

* " Most of the heroes of the Trojan war were the pupils of Chiron, 
the wise centaur. He was descended of the most illustrious ancestors 
and entitled to the first rank among the Thessalian princes. But he 
preferred to the enjoyment of power the cultivation of poetry, and re- 
tired, with his favorite muses, to a solitary cavern at the foot of Mount 
Pelion, which was soon rendered, by the fame of his abilities, the most 
celebrated school of antiquity." — Xenoph. de Venat. Chiron instructed 
./Esculapius in physic, Hercules in astronomy, and Achilles in music. 

f Achilles sung to his lyre the praises of heroes: 

— asiii y «£« H\sa. avfyuv. — Horn. II., lib. ix. V. 189. 

X In the second century before Christ Polybius ascribes the most ex- 
traordinary effects to the Grecian music. — Polyb., lib- iv. c. 20. 

§ "Every kind of music is good for something; that of the theatres 
is necessary for the amusement of the mob, being well suited to the 
perversion of their minds and manners, and let them enjoy it." — Arist. 
de Republ, lib. viil Plato, Aristoxenus, and Plutarch, bitterly complain 
of the corruption of music, as the chief source of vice and immorality. 
That art, which had anciently been used as the vehicle of religious and 
moral instruction, was employed in the theatres to excite every volup- 
tuous and dissolute passion. — Plato de Legibus, lib. iii. ; Aristoxenus, lib. 
xiv., and Plutarch de Musica, 



292 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

instruments of music* which, by languishing sounds, 
enervate the soul of all its vigor. The only music is 
that engaging melody which touches the heart and 
moves and soothes the passions, according to the dic- 
tates of reason. * * * * Must it not, therefore, be ad- 
mitted, even by those who are prejudiced against us, 
that music is of great advantage to our design of form- 
ing the future orator ? 



CHAPTER IX. 

Of Geometry. 



There are some parts in geometry generally admit- 
ted to be useful to children: for by these the mind is 
exercised, the judgment sharpened, and a quicker con- 
ception procured. But it is said that the use of geo- 
metry is not so extensive as the other arts, being only 
advantageous during the time we learn it, and no 
longer. This is the vulgar opinion, but without found- 
ation; because the greatest men have exhibited an 
assiduous application to the study of this science. 

Geometry is divided into two parts, Numbers and 
Dimensions. A knowledge of numbers is not only 

* Psalterium, a musical instrument with ten strings, resembling a 
harp. Spadix, an instrument of music used among the Phoenicians, 
like a dulcimer. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 293 

necessary to him who is superficially acquainted with 
letters; but more especially to the orator, who must 
very frequently state an account. For should he hesi- 
tate, at the bar, in summing up an exact total, or 
should he make a motion with his fingers which disa- 
grees with his calculation, all would judge him unskill- 
ful. The second part, consisting of lines and dimen- 
sions, is not less necessary in pleading causes ; for 
many lawsuits originate concerning measures and 
boundaries. But this science has a more intimate 
connection with the art of oratory. 

First, order is essential to geometry: is it not also 
to eloquence ? Geometry lays down principles, draws 
conclusions from them, and proves uncertainties by 
certainties. Does not oratory accomplish the same ? 
Does not geometry reduce its proofs into a syllogistic 
form, and, therefore, many think that it partakes more 
of the nature of logic than rhetoric ? But because the 
orator seldom proves logically, shall it be said that he 
never does so ? When the subject requires it, he will 
use the syllogism, or at least the Enthymeme, which is 
the true rhetorical syllogism. Upon the whole, the 
strongest proofs are those which are designated geome- 
trical demonstrations:* and as the object of geometry 
is to prove evidently, can eloquence have any other 
end? 

Geometry likewise discovers by reason a falsehood in 
verisimilitudes. It shows, in numbers, the errors of 
some calculations which they call Pseudographia,f with 
which boys were accustomed to amuse themselves. But 
there are other things of greater consequence. For 

25* 



294 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

who would not assent to this proposition: "All places 
of equal circumferences have equal spaces." This, 
however, is false; for we must know the figure of this 
circumference; and, therefore, historians are justly 
censured by geometricians, for determining the extent 
of islands by the circuit of navigators. Now, the more 
exact a figure is, the greater will be the space it con- 
tains. If, therefore, the circumference makes a circle, 
which is the most exact figure in planes, it will com- 
prehend a greater space than if it forimed a square 
of equal circumference. Again, squares will contain 
a greater space than triangles; and triangles with 
equal sides a greater than triangles with unequal. 
I could adduce other examples, but as they are, per- 
haps, involved in greater obscurity, shall present an 
experiment adapted to every one's capacity. Almost 
every person knows that an acre contains two hundred 
and forty feet in length, and the half of this number 
of feet in breadth; and, therefore, it is easy to deter- 
mine its circumference and surface. Now, let us sup- 
pose a square, of which the sides are a hundred and 
eighty feet each. The circumference of this square 
will be exactly equal to that of the acre, yet its area 
makes a greater space; which, if any one should be 
unwilling to compute, it may be easily perceived in a 
less number. A square, whose sides are each ten feet, 
has forty in circumference, and the surface will be a 
hundred feet square. Add fifteen feet in length to 
five in breadth, and the circumference will be the same, 
but the space will be less by one fourth. A parallelo- 
gram of nineteen feet in length, and one foot in 
breadth, will make a circumference of forty feet, as 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 295 

well as an exact square, whose surface is a hundred 
feet square ; but it will contain only in surface as many 
feet square as it has feet in length. Whatever, there- 
fore, you subtract from the figure of an exact square, 
will diminish the surface; and, consequently, a less 
space may be contained in a greater circumference. I 
speak of level surfaces; for it is evident that mountains 
and valleys have a greater extent of surface than there 
is of corresponding sky or air. 

But geometry soars to the knowledge of more 
sublime matters: it lays the world open to our view, 
and displays all the wonders of nature. From the 
precision of its calculations we learn that the courses 
of the celestial bodies are regulated by a constant and 
never failing equability of motion, with which they 
have been impressed: an incontestable argument, that 
chance was not the cause of all this order and symme- 
try. This surely is a subject worthy of an orator, and 
he must sometimes have an occasion to treat it with 
becoming dignity. When Pericles explained to the 
terrified Athenians the natural causes of an eclipse of 
the sun; or when Sulpicius Gallus, in the army of Lu- 
cius Paulus, predicted an eclipse of the moon, to pre- 
vent the soldiery from being affrighted, as by a prodigy 
sent from heaven, did not both acquit themselves of the 
function of an orator? Had Nicias possessed their 
knowledge, he would not, seized by a similar panic, 
have surrendered a most splendid army of the Athe- 
nians in Sicily. When Dion came to overthrow the 
government of Dionysius he was not deterred by a 
like occurrence. Warriors may avail themselves of 



296 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

such examples; but what shall I say of Archimedes,* 
who, alone by his geometrical skill, protracted to so 
great a length the siege of Syracuse. To conclude: 
there are very many questions which we are at a loss 
to solve, unless we adopt the linear demonstrations, 
with which this science furnishes us: so that if it be 
incumbent on the orator, as we shall show in the fol- 
lowing book, to discourse indiscriminately upon all sub- 
jects, we may naturally suppose that this cannot be 
effected without the aid of geometry. 

* Archimedes, a celebrated geometrician, born at Syracuse, in Sicily, 
and related to Hiero, king of Syracuse. His character is described in 
Livy, (lib. xxiv. cap. 34.) Cicero, in bis Tusculan questions, (lib. i. 
cap. 26,) says that he first invented globes to show the motions of the 
heavens. He possessed such an astonishing invention in mechanics, 
that he assured Hiero, that if he had another earth upon which to plant 
his machines, he could move this which we inhabit. Archimedes be- 
came very famous by his curious contrivances, by which the city was so 
long defended when besieged by Marcellus. Against the vessels which 
came up close to the walls, he contrived a kind of crow, projected 
above the wall, with an iron grapple fastened to a strong chain. This 
was let down upon the prow of a ship, and, by means of the weight of 
a heavy counterpoise of lead, raised up the prow, and set the vessel in 
an upright position ; then dropping it suddenly, as if it had fallen from 
the walls, the vessel sunk so far into the sea, that a great quantity of 
water was admitted, even when the ship fell upon the keel. But, not- 
withstanding all his art, Syracuse was taken by Marcellus, who gave a 
special charge to save Archimedes. But being too busily engaged in 
study to answer to his name, he was slain by a common soldier, to the 
great regret of the Roman general. 



ELEMENTS OP ORATORY* 297 



CHAPTER X. 

I. Pronunciation is to be formed by that of comedians. II. And gesture 
and attitude copied from the Palaestra. 

I. The future orator who desires a knowledge of 
pronunciation, should receive some instruction from 
comedians. But I do not wish that a youth, destined 
for these hopes, should assume in mimic form the small 
voice of a woman, or the tremulous accents of an old 
man. Nor should he personate the drunkard, or be 
imbued with the scurrility of a slave; much less should 
he learn the passions of love, avarice, and superstition. 
All these are unnecessary to the orator; and, as the 
imitation of what is vicious generally grows into a 
habit, so tender minds seldom fail to be tinged with the 
infection. 

All sorts of gestures and motions must not be bor- 
rowed from comedians; for, although an orator ought, 
in some respects, to excel in both of these, he should 
not affect a theatrical air. His action, his gait, his 
countenance, should be quite different. And if there 
is any art in these particulars, I think the orator's 
greatest art would be to conceal it. 

But what is the duty of a master with these ? To 
correct all faults of pronunciation; to take care that 
words be exactly expressed, and that every letter 
should have its proper sound. The sound of some 



298 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

letters is vitiated by mincing; others we pronounce too 
thick or broad; harsh letters we exchange for others 
not unlike them, but of a more obtuse sound. For the 
letter £,* which Demosthenes had some difficulty to 
pronounce, the a, takes the place, the powers of both 
are also the same in Latin. and t are softened by g 
and d. The affectation of sounding the sf ought not 
to be suffered: nor ought speaking in the throat, or 
with a gaping mouth, or with a twist of the mouth, to 
give the word a fuller sound, be permitted. The Greeks 
call this xa.taTtsTi'kaa^vov: and the same term is also used 
by them to signify a way of playing upon flutes, when, 
by stopping all the holes that cause the louder tones, 
only one passage is left for producing a base. 

A master also should be careful that the last sylla- 
bles in a word be not lost; that the pronunciation 
be consistent with itself; that in exclamations the 
effort proceed rather from the lungs than the head; 
that the gesture correspond with the voice, and the 
countenance with the gesture. He must also observe 
that the face of the speaker be in a straight position; 
that the lips be not distorted; that immoderate gaping 
distend not the jaws; that the visage be not tossed 

* " For having such an impediment in his speech that he (Demos- 
thenes) could not pronounce the R', which is the first letter of the art 
he was studying, he grew so perfect by practising beforehand, that he 
was thought to pronounce it as well as any man of his time."— Cic. de 
Orat., lib. i. 40. 

f This verse of Euripides' Medea, 

has been ridiculed by comic poets, and sometimes excited great laughter 
among the Athenians when that tragedy was represented. 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 299 

upwards; that the eyes be not downcast, and the neck 
inclined to either side. The forehead errs in many 
ways. I have seen some who, at every effort of the 
voice raise their eyebrows; others knit them; while 
others keep one up, and the other so far down, as 
almost to press upon the eye. All these particulars 
are of the greatest consequence, as we shall show 
hereafter; for nothing can please but what is be- 
coming. 

A comedian should likewise teach how a narrative is 
to be pronounced, what degree of authority is neces- 
sary to persuade; what tone of voice is best adapted to 
anger,* and what to pity;f and in order to accomplish 
this successfully, he may select such passages from 
plays as most nearly resemble pleadings at the bar. 
These will contribute essentially, not only for forming 
the pronunciation, but for improving in eloquence. 
These remarks are applicable to our orator's tender 
years: but when he shall be able to read the speeches 
of orators and appreciate their beauties; then let a 
studious and skillful master assist him in acquiring a 
taste for reading, and compel him to commit to memory 
the most prominent parts, and, lastly, induce him to 
declaim as if he were actually pleading at the bar. In 

* " Anger has a peculiar pronunciation, which is quick, sharp, and 
broken : 

"Ah! mark you this, quick! bind him." — Cic.de Orat., 1. iii. 58. 

-f- " The tone of pity and grief is different ; it is full, moving, broken, 
and mournful : 

"O my father! O my country! O the house of Priam!" — Id. 



300 

this manner his voice and memory will be exercised by 
pronunciation. 

II. I would not censure those who sometimes resort 
to schools of palestric exercises.* I speak not of 
those places where people waste away one part of 
their lives in suppling their joints with oil, and another 
part by drowning their senses with wine. These I 
would keep at the remotest distance from our orator. 
But I allude to the places (for the Latin word signifies 
both) where young persons are taught a graceful mo- 

* " The Pale, or exercise of wrestling, is reported by Pausanias to 
have been reduced into a science by Theseus. It was chiefly remark- 
able on account of the oil and sand, or, as Burette says, of oil, wax, and 
dust, called Ceroma, with which they rubbed their bodies, in order to 
supple their joints, to prevent excessive perspiration, and to elude the 
grasp of their antagonists. The wrestlers were matched by the judges 
or presidents of the games by lot, and the prize adjudged to him who 
thrice threw his adversary on the ground; or, as Seneca says: "Luctator 
ter abjectus perdidit palmam." The wrestlers who had been anointed 
were always, before they engaged, sprinkled with dust or sand, kept in 
a place called Kovia-rv^tov. And to say that a wrestler gained a victory, 
(«xov<Tt,) or without being sprinkled, was equivalent to say he gained 
a victory without an engagement. This sometimes happened when, 
from the reputation of the champion, no one appeared to encounter 
him. Thus Milo. of Crotona, who had gained six Olympic, and as 
many Pythian crowns, challenged the whole assembly, and finding no 
competitor, he claimed the crown. But as he was about to receive it 
he unfortunately fell, and the people cried out that he had forfeited the 
prize. Then Milo (Anthologia, lib. i. cap. i. epigram 11) 

Arose, and standing in the midst, thus cried : 
Do not three falls the victory decide? 
Fortune, indeed, hath given me one, but who 
Will undertake to throw me th' other two ?" 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 301 

tion and carriage of the body. To this may belong 
the manner of keeping the arms in a straight position ; 
refraining from an awkward and clownish use of the 
hands; standing in a graceful attitude; walking with a 
noble air; and making no motions with the head and 
eyes which may disagree with the other motions of the 
body. 

All these are accessions to grace pronunciation, a 
thing so essentially necessary to an orator. Why, 
then, should what is requisite be neglected ? We find 
that the rules for gesture* originated from the times of 
heroes; that they were approved by the greatest men 
of Greece, even by Socrates himself; that Plato gave 
them a place among the civil virtues; and that Chry- 
sippus did not omit them in his precepts for the educa- 
tion of youth. We learn also from history that the 
Lacedemonians had among their exercises a sort of 
dance, which their youth were made to learn as a 
useful accomplishment for war. Nor was a similar 
practice considered disreputable by the ancient Ro- 
mans: and dancing is still retained by some of our 
priests in the solemnities of their religious ceremonies, f 

* Chironomia, or lex gestus, in the Latin text, is the gesture of gesticu- 
lating dancing. It is also the rule of gesture and motion, which origi- 
nated from regulating the hands ; because the chief part of gesture 
consists in the propriety of their motions. 

t Quintilian probably alludes, in this place, to an order of priests 
instituted by Numa, called Salii, (a saliendo,) upon account of the ex- 
traordinary noise and shaking they made in their dances. In the month 
of March, the time of their great feast, they marched in procession 
about the city, says Plutarch, with a nimble motion, keeping just mea- 
sures with their feet, and demonstrating great strength and agility by 
the various and handsome turns of their body. They sung all along a 

26 



302 THE ART OP RHETORIC ; OR, 

And Cicero makes Crassus use these words in the third 
book of his "Orator:" "An orator must have some- 
thing noble and manly in his whole action; and he 
must form it, not on the model of stage players and 
buffoons, but on that of a man inured to the camp, or 
a proficient in the (palcestra) school of exercises." 
This manner of discipline has descended to our days 
without censure; but, in my opinion, should not extend 
beyond our younger years, and even then be not long 
continued; for it is an orator I form, and not a dancer. 
This advantage, however, will accrue from these youth- 
ful exercises, that, without thinking, a secret grace will 
imperceptibly mingle with all our behavior, and con- 
tinue with us through life. 



CHAPTER XL 

Children are capable of being taught many things at the same time. 
1. Because the nature of the human mind is such that it can attend 
to many things together. 2. Because boys can easily bear the labor 
of study. 3. They have then most time for the purpose. — That in- 
dolence is the cause why orators do not learn many things. 

It may be asked, admitting that the studies enume- 
rated above are indispensably necessary, can they be 
all taught and learned at the same time ? Some deny 

set of old verses sacred to Mars, called the carmen saliare; the original 
form of which Was composed by Numa. — See Livy, book i. chap. 20. 



ELEMENTS OF OUATORY. 308 

that they can; because the mind would be confused 
and fatigued by so many sciences of a different tend- 
ency, to acquire which, neither the mind, nor body, 
nor even the length of the day, divided between such 
a diversity of study, would be sufficient; and although 
more mature years might endure the labor, the minds 
of children could not sustain the same burden. 

1. But those who reason in this manner, do not fully 
understand the nature of the human mind. This prin- 
ciple is so active and quick, and keeps such a multi- 
plicity of points in view, that it cannot restrict itself 
to the action of one particular thing, but extends its 
power to many, not only during the same day, but 
likewise during the same instant. What shall I say of 
those who play upon the harp ? They touch one string, 
stop another, try this one, tune that; everything is 
employed at the same time, the memory, the voice, the 
right hand, the left; even the feet are not idle; they 
regulate the time, and beat the measure. But suppose 
we are obliged, by some unforeseen accident, to plead 
a cause, do we not say one thing, think of another, in- 
vent reasons, make choice of words, and adapt pronun- 
ciation, countenance, and gesture, to the nature of the 
cause ? If we, therefore, execute these different things, 
as I may say, by a single exertion, what can retard 
our application when we have several hours for reflec- 
tion, especially when variety refreshes and renovates 
the mind ? On the contrary, it is more difficult to per- 
severe in the same study. Composition and reading 
by turns wear away our aversion; and although we 
may have done many things, we find ourselves, in some 
measure, fresh and recruited at entering upon a new 



304 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

subject. Who can avoid dullness when confined a 
whole day to the master of one science ? But to have 
changes will be a recreation; as a variety of meats 
revives the appetite, and preserves it longer from 
satiety. 

I should like to be informed of any other way for 
learning. Must we devote ourselves to grammar only, 
and afterwards to nothing but geometry ? Must we 
neglect, in the meantime, what we have learned when 
we apply ourselves to music, and so forget all that 
went before ? And when we shall study Latin, may 
we not review Greek? In a word, must nothing be 
done, unless what presents itself last? Why do we 
not advise our husbandmen not to cultivate, at the 
same time, their fields, vineyards, olive-grounds, and 
shrubs; or dissuade them, at the same time, from 
taking care of their meadow-grounds, cattle, gardens, 
and bee-hives ? Why do we ourselves allot, every day, 
something to the bar, something to the gratification of 
our friends; something to our domestic concerns, some- 
thing to the care of our health, and something even 
to our pleasures. Any one of these occupations con- 
tinued without intermission would prove wearisome: so 
true is it, that it is much easier to do many things than 
confine ourselves long to one. 

2. We should be under no apprehension that chil- 
dren are incapable of the labor of study: for no age is 
less fatigued; and this might appear strange, but you 
may discover it by experience. Children's intellects 
are more docile before they become blunted by more 
advanced years. This is exemplified by their speaking 
nearly all words in less than two years, when their 



ELEMENTS OF ORATORY. 305 

tongue is once free, without any person's assistance. 
But as to our newly purchased slaves, how long a 
time they require to speak Latin ! Whoever has in- 
structed adults will know that it is not without reason 
the Greeks use the term rtcuSo^aflfij, to denote those 
who are as well experienced in their art as if trained 
to it from their infancy. Children can naturally bear 
labor more patiently than grown up persons. We see 
infants fall frequently without much injury ; their creep- 
ing upon hands and feet is scarcely any trouble to them ; 
when they can walk they run about and play whole days 
together without being weary; because there is a want 
of weight in their bodies, and therefore little force can 
accompany their efforts. In like manner their minds, 
I believe, are less fatigued than ours; for their appli- 
cation, slight and superficial, does not proceed from an 
inclination of their own, but only to prepare themselves 
for receiving their master's instruction. They can also, 
according to another capability incident to their years, 
learn more easily from those whose method of teaching 
is plain and simple: nor do they place any value on 
what they have already done, being as yet incapable of 
forming to themselves a judgment of labor. And hence, 
as we have frequently found, labor is less fatiguing 
than thought and reflection. 

3. But they will never have more time than when 
young for learning those branches, the progress in 
which depends entirely on hearing. When they apply 
themselves to study the elegance of style, and to invent 
and compose anything, they will not find time, or per- 
haps will be unwilling to begin these studies. And, 
therefore, as a grammar-master cannot spend the whole 



306 THE ART OF RHETORIC ; OR, 

day with them, for fear of giving them a distaste for 
learning, in what other studies can these leisure hours 
be better employed? I would not, however, require 
the student to be versed in these arts to perfection: he 
may understand music without being skilled in the art 
of musical composition; and of geometry there is no 
necessity to be experienced in its most minute opera- 
tions. To form an orator's pronunciation, I do not 
make a comedian of him, nor a dancing master, to 
grace his motions ; and if I did require all these things, 
there would be time enough. And, indeed, there is 
time enough for those who improve it. For, as to the 
stupid, I say nothing of them. How did Plato excel 
in whatever, I think, the future orator ought to learn. 
Not content with the sciences which flourished at 
Athens, nor with those of the Pythagorean sect, for 
which he sailed to Italy, he also passed over to the 
priests of Egypt, in order to learn the mysteries couched 
under their hieroglyphic symbols. 

We palliate our sloth under the excuse of difficulty. 
We do not engage in study through a love of choice 
and inclination. If we seek eloquence, it is not be- 
cause it is the most noble accomplishment in nature, 
and most deserving our care; but rather for a base end, 
and the desire of sordid gain. Without these requi- 
sites, let several plead at the bar, and endeavor to 
enrich themselves: what will be the consequence? 
Notwithstanding all their toil and care, a broker may 
acquire more from the sale of his sordid ware, and a 
public crier from the hire of his voice. I should dis- 
like even a reader who could think of computing the 
income of his labor. But I prefer the man of a sublime 



ELEMENTS OF ORARORY. 307 

genius, who can form to himself an idea of the grandeur 
of eloquence, which a celebrated tragic poet calls "the 
queen of all things."* He keeps his eyes constantly 
fixed upon her. He seeks after no emolument from his 
pleading. f The fruits of his labors are his knowledge, 
contemplation and noble thoughts; fruits perpetually 
remaining with him, and in no way subject to the 
caprices of fortune. He will easily persuade himself 
to apply to music and geometry, the time which others 
waste away at shows, in the Campus Martius, at gam- 
ing, in idle talk, not to speak of sleep and midnight 
reveling. How exquisite will his pleasures be when 
compared with those which are destitute of all delicacy 
and refinement ! For Providence has granted this re- 
ward to mankind, that the taste of pleasure is always 
more satisfactory in virtuous amusements. But this 
satisfaction has led us too far. Let, therefore, what I 
have said be sufficient for the studies in which youth 
are to be instructed, until they are capable of greater 
matters. 

* Euripides in Hecuba, verse 816 : TieiQZ $s r»v rvgavvov av&^iroK: ftovw: 
" Eloquence the only queen among men." 

j- Fructum ex stipe advocationum: the fee paid by clients to their law- 
yers for pleading their cause. 



THE END. 



RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE FIRST EDITION. 



From James Carnahan, D.D., President of the College of New Jersey. 
To Mr. E. Littell: 

Sir — The " Elements of Rhetoric, by John A. Getty, A.M.," is the 
work of a profound classical scholar, manifests extensive reading on the 
subject discussed, and, in my opinion, will be found very convenient and 
useful to those who wish to have, in a compendious form, the substance of 
what distinguished Grecian and Roman masters have taught on the subject 
of eloquence. 

Nassau Hall, June 27, 1831. JAMES CARNAHAN. 

From the Rev. Samuel Fccleston, A.M., President of St. Mary's College, 
Baltimore. 
St. Mary's College, Baltimore, June 26, 1831. 

Dear Sir — In reply to your letter of the 20th inst., requesting my opinion 
of Mr. John A. Getty's Rhetoric, I take pleasure in stating, that I find the 
definitions to be accurate, and the exemplifications apt and copious. The 
work may be recommended as a convenient and agreeable manual of the 
ancient nomenclature of grammatical and rhetorical figures. 

I am, with great respect, your ob't serv't, 

Me. E. Littell. SAML. ECCLESTON. 

From Samuel B. How, D.D., President of Dickinson College. 

Carlisle, June 21, 1831. 

Dear Sir — I have examined, with as much attention as my engagements 
would permit, " Getty's Elements of Rhetoric," and am pleased with it. 
It compresses into a small space much valuable matter. Its author ex- 
hibits an extensive acquaintance with the ancient writers on Rhetoric, and 
has enriched his work by copious extracts from them. I think it well 
adapted as a Class Book to prepare youth for studying the more extensive 
treatises on this subject. 

Very respectfully yours, SAMUEL B. HOW. 

From William Neill, D.D., late President of Dickinson College, Carlisle, 
Pennsylvania. 

" The Elements of Rhetoric," by John A. Getty, A.M., comprises, 
within a small compass, the substance of volumes; and is calculated to 
facilitate the progress of youth in the study of the Latin and Greek classics. 

Philadelphia, June 26, 1831. WILLIAM NEILL. 

From the Rev. Edward Rutledge, A.M., Professor of Moral Philosophy in 
the University of Pennsylvania. 

Philadelphia, June 23, 1831. 
Dear Sir — I am very much pleased with Mr. Getty's work, and think it 
admirably adapted to the conveyance of most useful instruction in a pleas- 
ing and striking manner. I hope its respected author may meet the en- 
couragement he merits, and that his beautiful little manual may extensively 
aid our youth in acquiring the art of which it treats. 
With great respect I remain yours, &c, 
E. Littell, Esq. EDWARD RUTLEDGE. 



2 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

From Robert Adrain, LL.D., #c, Professor of Mathematics in the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania. 

Philadelphia, June 21, 1831. 
Dear Sir — Agreeably to your request I have examined Mr. Getty's " Ele- 
ments of Rhetoric." 

It appears to me that the work is elementary, methodical, and perspicu- 
ous, abounding in observations and examples which illustrate the subject, 
and interest the reader; and that it will be highly useful in the education 
of youth. 

Yours, with respect, &c, ROBERT ADRAIN. 

Mr. E. Littell. 

From S. B. Wylie, D.D., Professor of Languages in the University of 
Pennsylvania. 

Philadelphia, July 23, 1831. 

Sir — Having perused the little book you had the goodness to send me, 
entitled "Elements of Rhetoric," by John A. Getty, A.M., I am pre- 
pared to give you my opinion concerning its merits. I consider it as a 
manual which ought to be in the hands of every youth engaged in the 
acquisition of classical literature. It is rare to find such a mass of useful 
elementary matter condensed into such a narrow compass. The defi- 
nitions of the figures will be easily committed, and not easily forgotten. 
The illustrations are lucid, the examples pertinent and numerous, and the 
work eminently calculated to be a valuable acquisition to our classical 
institutions. I cordially wish it an extensive circulation. 

Very respectfully yours, &c, S. B. WYLIE. 

Mr. E. Littell. 

From the Rev. W. T. Brantly, Pastor of the First Baptist Church, Phila- 
delphia. 
Mr. E. Littell. 

Sir — " The Elements of Rhetoric," by John A. Getty, A.M., is a work 
of real merit and of unbounded utility. I have read it with attention, and 
I may also add, with advantage. Those who have spent much time in 
the instruction of youth, will best appreciate such a book as that which 
Mr. Getty has made; for they must have sensibly felt the want of such a 
compend of rhetorical definitions and examples. Indeed, every person 
who designs to read with propriety, or to understand with clearness, the 
best productions of ancient and modern times, should be fully acquainted 
with the whole scope of figurative language. I therefore cordially recom- 
mend the " Elements of Rhetoric" as a most valuable acquisition to the 
existing supply of standard school books. 

Very respectfully, W. T. BRANTLY. 

From the Rev. Dr. Samuel K. Jennings, President of Asbury College, 
Baltimore. 

Baltimore, June 29, 1831. 

Dear Sir — Agreeably to your request, I have devoted a little time to the 
" Elements of Rhetoric, by John A. Getty, A.M." 

The work begins with very clear and satisfactory definitions of the Ele- 
ments of Rhetoric, intended to educate the youthful mind for a ready 
invention and proper disposition ; the whole made familiar by appropriate 
examples, extracted from the English, Latin, and Greek classics. These 
are followed by excellent definitions and examples, preparatory to an ac- 
complished elocution. In this part of the work, I am particularly pleased 
to find an old acquaintance, the tropes and figures of speech in rhyme, 
which I have often felt a wish to see introduced in this way into gene- 
ral use. 

In the conclusion we have an epitome of all that is important in pro- 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 3 

nunciation, elucidated by examples, suited to that part of the general sub- 
ject. This summary, together with an annunciation that it is given in 
view of the reports of the merit of the work made by Dr. Waters and Mr. 
Power, and in which I heartily concur, will sufficiently evince my appro- 
bation of Mr. Getty's book. 
I am, respectfully, yours, SAML. K. JENNINGS, M.D. 

From the Rev. Francis Waters, D.D., Baltimore. 
Rev. Dr. Jennings. Baltimore, June 28, 1831. 

Dear Sir — I thank you for a perusal of the " Elements of Rhetoric, by 
John A. Getty, A.M." It is, in my opinion, a very respectable book. 
The rules and principles of the science are well arranged and illustrated 
by the author, at the same time that he has defined them with becoming 
precision and clearness. The additional figures which he has introduced, 
and the simplicity of their classification, will, no doubt, be estimated as a 
great advantage. To all learners the treatise will be useful, but to classi- 
cal students in particular, it will serve as an excellent manual in culti- 
vating this beautiful part of polite and finished education. 

Very truly and respectfully, F. WATERS. 

From Michael Power, A.M., Professor of Languages, Asbury College, 
Baltimore. 
Rev. Dr. Jennings. Baltimore, June 29, 1831. 

Dear Sir — Having examined the " Elements of Rhetoric, by John A. 
Getty, A.M.," as carefully as the limited time allowed me would permit, I 
cheerfully concur in opinion with the Rev. F. Waters, and will, in a short 
time, introduce the work into my school. 

Respectfully, your ob't serv't, M. POWER. 

From the New York American. 
" Elements of Rhetoric, for the use of Colleges, Academies, and Schools, 
by John A. Getty." The sole aim of this little volume appears to be, to 
exhibit, in a concise and methodical form, the chief elements of rhetoric, 
as expounded by the most authoritative ancient and modern writers, ac- 
companied with illustrations and examples. By means of questions and 
answers the principles of the art are developed and explained ; and the 
authority on which the answer is made, is, in all cases, quoted at the bot- 
tom of the page. It is, therefore, in the nature of a digest of the whole 
code of rhetoric, which, scattered through many volumes, is here reduced 
to its essence in about 120 pages. The explanations of the different tropes 
and figures of speech are given (for the sake, we presume, of aiding the 
memory) in a sort of doggerel — both in English and Latin — upon the same 
principle, and of about the same merit, as the "Propria quae maribus" of 
the old Latin grammars. We are well pleased with this little book, which 
displays more than ordinary research and learning. 

From the Baltimore Chronicle. 
"Elements of Rhetoric : exhibiting a methodical arrangement of all 
the important ideas of the ancient and modern writers. Designed for the 
use of Colleges, Academies, and Schools, by John A. Getty, A.M. Phi- 
ladelphia." This small volume appears to us well designed and well 
executed, and will be found highly useful to students and others disposed 
to improve in the attractive and noble science of rhetoric. The author 
has given a condensed view of what has been written on the subject by 
the most celebrated men of ancient and modern times, accompanied by 
satisfactory directions and explanations. This book could be read with 
advantage not only by young gentlemen preparing for professional life, 
but by their elders, and we hope that it will receive the patronage to 
which it is entitled from the talents and industry of its author. 



4 RECOMMENDATIONS. 

From J. R. Chandler, United States Gazette. 
We have received from the author a copy of a neat work, entitled 
<< Elements of Rhetoric : exhibiting a methodical arrangement of all the 
important ideas of ancient and modern rhetorical writers. By John A. 
Getty, A.M." The work is published by Mr. Littell, of this city, in a style 
creditable to his taste and liberality. It is rare, that with such a title, a book 
" destined for schools and academies," assumes such a radical form; the 
ideas, indeed, rather than the words of writers, are arranged, and the 
principles of composition and criticism carefully laid down. The work is 
the result of careful research, and will be found useful to those who seek 
a thorough acquaintance with rhetoric in its primary sense. 

From the Baltimore Patriot. 
Elements of Rhetoric. — " Song charms the sense, but eloquence the 
soul." Mr. Littell, of Philadelphia, has recently published a small treat- 
ise, intended to facilitate the progress of the student in this high reaching 
art. It is entitled the "Elements of Rhetoric : exhibiting a methodi- 
cal arrangement of all the important ideas of the ancient and modern 
Rhetorical writers," and is designed for the use of Colleges, Academies, 
and Schools. The author is J. A. Getty, A.M., who states, in his preface 
to the work, that his chief design in its composition has been to facilitate 
the acquisition of those " high and sublime ideas of oratory which are in- 
terspersed throughout the ancient classics." The volume is of small size, 
but rich in examples tending to illustrate its object, drawn from the most 
approved sources. From a slight examination of the work, we are induced 
to think it will be favorably received by those every way competent to 
pass upon its merits. 

From the Pennsylvania Inquirer. 
Getty's Rhetoric. — This is the title of a very neat volume, which has 
just issued from the press of E. Littell, of this city. It is designed to 
exhibit a methodical arrangement of all the important ideas of the ancient 
and modern rhetorical writers, and is intended for the use of Colleges, 
Academies, and Schools. The subject, we think, is very happily and 
judiciously treated by the author, as the book is calculated fully to answer 
the purpose for which it is written. It gives a full, and what strikes us as 
a correct, analysis of the art of public speaking, and may be studied with 
advantage by all who design to practise such art. 

From the New York Evening Post. 

Getty's Elements of Pvhetoric. E. Littell, of Philadelphia, has pub- 
lished a work with this title, comp ; led by John A. Getty, for the use of 
Schools. It consists of explanations of the various terms and definitions 
of the various figures of rhetoric, with examples of their use, from ancient 
and modern authors. If the object of the art of rhetoric be, as some 
author has said, to enable the rhetorician to name his tools, the present 
work, we believe, contains ample means of enabling him to do this to his 
satisfaction. 

From the Saturday Bulletin. 

Elements of Rhetoric : exhibiting a methodical arrangement of all the 
important ideas of the ancient and modern rhetorical writers: designed 
for the use of Colleges, Academies, and Schools. By John A. Getty, A.M. 
Philadelphia. The object of this work is very fully explained in the title. 
Mr. Getty has evidently bestowed much labor in getting up these Ele- 
ments, and abundant evidence appears of his having consulted all the old 
writers, with many of the moderns. The study of elocution is one which 
the youth of this country have too much neglected, when it is known to 
open to the aspiring a sure road to fame and fortune. Mr. Getty's work 
appears well fitted to aid the student in attaining a knowledge of this 
most popular art. 













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